The formation of the classic style, its periodization. Russian sentimentalism

30.06.2020

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was born on November 19 (8), 1711 in the village of Mishaninskaya, which is located on one of the islands of the Northern Dvina, not far from the city of Kholmogory. The future great scientist first saw the light of day in the family of a black-mown peasant (as state peasants were called in contrast to serfs) Vasily Dorofeevich Lomonosov. Henkel to study mining.

The years 1743-1747 were especially fruitful for Lomonosov’s scientific work in the field of physics and chemistry. It was then that he developed our country’s first scientific research program in the field of physics and chemistry, which later became known as “276 notes on physics and corpuscular philosophy.” (A corpuscle, according to the terminology of that time, is a particle of matter, similar in its properties to what at the end of the 19th century was called a molecule, and philosophy was then called science or teaching.) During the same period, he wrote dissertations “On insensitive particles”, “ On the effect of chemical solvents in general”, “On metallic luster”, “Reflections on the cause of heat and cold”, etc.

Since 1744, M.V. Lomonosov gave lectures on physics to students of the academic university. These classes showed that successful learning requires a good textbook. And Lomonosov translates from Latin into Russian “Experimental Physics” by one of his Marburg teachers - H. Wolf. It was used for a long time to study physics in various educational institutions of the country.

In 1745, Lomonosov was elected professor of chemistry (academician) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and began to actively strive for the creation of a chemical laboratory. His efforts were crowned with success. In 1748, on the second line of Vasilyevsky Island, in the courtyard of the house where the scientist lived, the first scientific and educational laboratory in Russia was built.

Lomonosov considered the spread of education among the Russian people one of his main tasks. The scientist had long been concerned about the deplorable state of the academic gymnasium and university. According to his proposal and project, Moscow University was opened in January 1755.

In the same year, Lomonosov put into print the “Russian Grammar” - the first grammar textbook in Russia - and completed work on “Ancient Russian History”, and in 1756 he read before the academicians “The Lay on the Origin of Light...”, in which he outlined his theory of light and color phenomena.

In 1758, M.V. Lomonosov was appointed to head the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences. He begins work on compiling a new “Russian Atlas”. At the same time, together with Academician Brown, he conducts experiments at low temperatures.

But unlike European classicism, Russian classicist writers based their works on subjects from Russian history and problems close to reality. Therefore, first of all, Russian classic writers exposed the vices of their modernity, the main of which was serfdom.

The main representatives of Russian classicism can be called M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin and I.A. Krylova.

Classicism (both Russian and European) is based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. According to classicists, reason was given to man in order to comprehend the ideas of the Creator. Man differs from all other creatures precisely in that he always strives to comprehend the world around him. In the Russian Enlightenment, the image of an enlightened nobleman-patriot comes to the fore.

Ticket No. 4

Speaking about the image of the “ideal knight”, it is possible to establish a whole series of moral and psychological categories that form this image reflected in the novel. Among them, valor ranks first. This quality of a knight is determined by his social existence as a professional warrior. It receives, first of all, ethical justification and is directly linked to the idea of moral perfection. Valor motivates the actions of a knight, makes him seek adventures - “adventures”. The code of chivalry required many virtues from a person, for a knight is one who acts nobly and leads a noble lifestyle. A knight errant had to obey four laws: never refuse a duel; in a tournament, take the side of the weak; help everyone whose cause is just; in case of war, support a just cause. Tristan has never violated any provision of this code. The content of the analyzed novel confirms the fact that Tristan is a noble knight, a true hero. His entire short life was devoted to the principles that his adoptive father, Gorvenal, once taught him: a knight is one who acts nobly and leads a noble lifestyle. In addition to the moral and psychological portrait of a warrior, the novel gives a general idea of the battle tactics, weapons and clothing of a knight in the indicated era. But above all, the novel about Tristan and Isolde is a story about love that is stronger than death, about the guilt of the beloved and the lover before the unloved, the myth about the eternal return of Tristan and the bitter happiness of the queen, about the generosity and cruelty of King Mark. Ideas about valor, honor, fidelity, mutual respect, noble morals and the cult of ladies fascinated people of other cultural eras. The novel gives a general idea and provides a collective image of an ideal lady worthy of the worship of a great warrior. This image is a reflection of the era, the cult of veneration of the Mother of God. "The novel embodies the dream of happiness, a sense of strength, the will to defeat evil. This, without a doubt, was its primary social function: for many centuries it outlived the conditions that brought it to life

The composition “Woe from Wit” has several features. Firstly, the play has two storylines that are closely intertwined. The beginnings (Chatsky's arrival) and the ending (Chatsky's last monologue) of these storylines coincide, but still the comedy is based on two storylines, because each of them has its own climax. Secondly, the main storyline is social, as it runs through the entire play, while love relationships are clear from the exposition (Sophia loves Molchalin, and Chatsky is a childhood hobby for her). The explanation of Sophia and Chatsky occurs at the beginning of the third act, which means that the third and fourth acts serve to reveal the social content of the work. The social conflict involves Chatsky, guests Famusova, Repetilov, Sofya, Skalozub, Molchalin, that is, almost all the characters, but in the love story there are only four: Sofya, Chatsky, Molchalin and Lisa.
To summarize, it should be noted that “Woe from Wit” is a comedy of two storylines, with the social one taking up much more space in the play and framing the love one. Therefore, the genre originality of “Woe from Wit” can be defined as follows: a social, not an everyday comedy. The love storyline plays a secondary role and gives the play life-like verisimilitude.
Griboedov's skill as a playwright is manifested in the fact that he skillfully interweaves two storylines, using a common beginning and ending, thus maintaining the integrity of the play. Griboyedov’s skill was also expressed in the fact that he came up with original plot twists (Chatsky’s reluctance to believe in Sophia’s love for Molchalin, the gradual unfolding of gossip about Chatsky’s madness).

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Classicism style in architecture

The era of classicism came at a very important period in European urban planning. At that time, not only residential units were built en masse, but also non-residential facilities and public places requiring architectural design: hospitals, museums, schools, parks, etc.

The emergence of classicism

Although classicism originated in the Renaissance, it began to actively develop in the 17th century, and by the 18th century it was already quite firmly entrenched in European architecture. The concept of classicism was to form all architectural forms in the likeness of ancient ones. The architecture of the era of classicism is characterized by a return to such ancient standards as monumentality, severity, simplicity and harmony.

Classicism in architecture appeared thanks to the bourgeoisie - it became its art and ideology, since it was antiquity that bourgeois society associated with the correct order of things and the structure of the universe. The bourgeoisie opposed itself to the aristocracy of the Renaissance and, as a result, opposed classicism to “decadent art.” She attributed such styles of architecture as Rococo and Baroque to such art - they were considered too intricate, lax, and nonlinear.

The ancestor and inspirer of the aesthetics of the classicism style is considered to be Johann Winckelmann, a German art critic who is the founder of the history of art as a science, as well as current ideas about the art of antiquity. The theory of classicism is confirmed and strengthened in his work “Laocoon” by the German critic-educator Gotthold Lessing.

Classicism in the architecture of Western Europe

French classicism developed much later than English. The rapid development of this style was hampered by adherence to the architectural forms of the Renaissance, in particular, the late Gothic Baroque, but soon the French architects surrendered to the onset of reforms in architecture, opening the way to classicism.

The development of classicism in Germany occurred rather undulatingly: it was characterized either by strict adherence to the architectural forms of antiquity, or by their mixing with the forms of the Baroque style. With all this, German classicism was very similar to classicism in France, so quite soon the leading role in the spread of this style in Western Europe went to Germany and its architectural school.

Due to the difficult political situation, classicism came to Italy even later, but soon after that it was Rome that became the international center of classicist architecture. Classicism also reached a high level in England as a design style for country houses.

Features of classicism in architecture

The main features of the classicism style in architecture are:

simple and geometric shapes and volumes;
alternating horizontal and vertical lines;
balanced room layout;
restrained proportions;
symmetrical home decoration;
monumental arched and rectangular structures.

Following the order system of antiquity, elements such as colonnades, rotundas, porticos, reliefs on the walls, and statues on the roof are used in the design of houses and plots in the classicist style. The main color scheme for the design of buildings in the classicist style is light, pastel colors.

Windows in the classicist style are usually elongated upward, rectangular in shape, without flashy design. The doors are most often paneled, sometimes decorated with statues in the form of lions, sphinxes, etc. The roof of the house, on the contrary, is of a rather intricate shape, covered with tiles.

The materials most often used to create houses in the classicist style are wood, brick, and natural stone. When decorating, gilding, bronze, carving, mother-of-pearl and inlay are used.

Russian classicism

Classicism in architecture Russia of the 18th century differs quite significantly from European classicism, since it abandoned the models of France and followed its own path of development. Although Russian architects relied on the knowledge of Renaissance architects, they still sought to apply traditional techniques and motifs to the architecture of Russian classicism. Unlike European classicism, Russian classicism of the 19th century, and later Russian Empire style, used military and patriotic themes in their design (wall decor, stucco molding, choice of statues) against the backdrop of the War of 1812.

The founders of classicism in Russia are considered to be Russian architects Ivan Starov, Matvey Kazakov and Vasily Bazhenov. Russian classicism is conventionally divided into three periods:

early - the period when the features of Baroque and Rococo had not yet been completely supplanted from Russian architecture;
mature - strict imitation of the architecture of antiquity;
late, or high (Russian Empire style) - characterized by the influence of romanticism.

Russian classicism is also distinguished from European classicism by the scale of construction: it was planned to create entire districts and cities in this style, while new classical buildings had to be combined with the old Russian architecture of the city.

A striking example of Russian classicism is the famous Pashkov House, or Pashkov House - now the Russian State Library. The building follows the balanced, U-shaped layout of classicism: it consists of a central building and side wings (outbuildings). The wings are designed as a portico with a pediment. On the roof of the house there is a belvedere in the shape of a cylinder.

Other examples of buildings in the classicist style in Russian architecture are the Main Admiralty, Anichkov Palace, Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, St. Sophia Cathedral in Pushkin and others.

You can find out all the secrets of the classicism style in architecture and interior in the following video:

Changes in the political, cultural, and economic life of Russia posed a number of urgent tasks for literature: it was necessary to understand the changes that had taken place and, having comprehended them, reflect the surrounding reality. The literature of this period not only reproduces new phenomena, but also evaluates them, comparing them with the past, advocating in defense of Peter's conquests. In the 30-50s, a new direction was formed in literature – Russian classicism . This led to radical changes in the field of literature, which can be called the first steps of Russian classicism: New classic genres are created, literary language and versification are formed, theoretical treatises are written to substantiate such innovations. The founders of this trend in Russian literature are Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, whose work entirely belongs to the 18th century. All of them were born in the era of Peter, from childhood they breathed its air and with their creativity they sought to approve and defend Peter’s reforms in the years following the death of Peter the Great. The basis of Russian classicism in literature was the ideology that emerged as a result of awareness of the strengths of Peter's reforms. Russian classicism was created by a generation of European-educated young writers who defended this ideology.

Word classicism comes from the Latin word classicus, i.e. exemplary. This was the name of ancient literature, which was widely used by classicists. Classicism received its most vivid embodiment in the 17th century, in France, in the works of Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau. The foundation of European classicism became absolutism and advanced philosophical teachings of the time. The aesthetic ideal of classicism is a man who has mastered his passions and subordinated the personal to the public. In art, the concept of “duty” arises in relation to one’s state; this duty is above all else. In a conflict between passion and duty, duty always wins. A person must have high moral principles, then he will prefer the fulfillment of state or public duty to his personal interests.

The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state was declared the highest value. The classicists believed in the possibility of its further improvement. In their view, the state was a reasonably structured social organism, where each class fulfills the duties assigned to it. Man, from the point of view of classicists, is an egoist, but he is amenable to education and the influence of civilization. The key to positive changes in human “nature” is reason, which classicists contrasted with emotions and “passions.” Reason helps to realize “duty” to the state, while “passions” distract from socially useful activities.

Russian classicism was formed under similar conditions of the absolutist power of the emperor, but it arose much later, so it has its own differences:

1. Russian classicism was formed in the era of the European Enlightenment, therefore its main task is the reconstruction of society based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Classical writers were confident that it was possible, on reasonable grounds, through proper education, which should organize a state headed by an enlightened monarch, to put an end to human “evil nature” and create a perfect society.

2. Russian classicism arises after the death of Peter I, during the period of reaction, and new Russian literature begins not with odes glorifying the actions of the emperor, but with Cantemir’s satires, the heroes of which are not ancient heroes, but contemporaries, and Cantemir does not ridicule specific human vices, but exposes social shortcomings and fights reactionaries.

3. The first Russian classicists were already aware of the educational idea about the natural equality of people. But this thesis at that time had not yet been embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of “natural law,” called on the nobles to humanely treat the peasants. Sumarokov pointed to the natural equality of nobles and peasants.

4. The main difference between Russian classicism and European classicism was that he combined the ideas of absolutism with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. First of all, this is the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise “enlightened” monarch, demanding from each of the classes and individuals honest service for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler for Russian classicists was Peter the Great. Russian literature begins the process of teaching and educating the autocrat.

He reigns over the people to bliss,

And leading the common benefit to perfection:

The orphan does not cry under his scepter,

The innocent is not afraid...

... The flatterer does not bow to the feet of a nobleman

The king is a judge equal to all and a father equal to all...

– wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The king must remember that he is the same person as his subjects; if he cannot establish the proper order, then he is a “vile idol”, “an enemy of the people.”

5. The word “enlightened” meant not just an educated person, but a citizen who was helped by knowledge to realize his responsibility to society. “Ignorance” implied not only a lack of knowledge, but also a lack of understanding of one’s duty to the state. That is why in Russian classicism of the 30-50s a huge place was given to sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. In almost all of his odes M.V. speaks about the benefits of science. Lomonosov. Cantemir’s first satire, “To Your Mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching."

6. Russian classicists were close to the struggle of enlighteners against the church and church ideology. They denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by the church.

7. The art of Russian classicists is based not only on works of antiquity, it is quite closely connected with national tradition and oral folk art, their literature often takes events of Russian history as a basis.

8. In the artistic field, Russian classicists faced very difficult tasks. Russian literature of this period did not know a well-developed literary language and did not have a specific genre system. Therefore, Russian writers of the second third of the 18th century had to not only create a new literary direction, but also put in order the literary language, the system of versification and master genres unknown in Russia until that time. Each of the authors was a pioneer: Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies.

9. Russian classicists created many theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. V. K. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems” (1735), in which he substantiated the basic principles of the new syllabic-tonic system, and Lomonosov in his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739) developed and finalized syllabic-tonic system of versification /41 /. In his discussion “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” Lomonosov carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the “three calms.” Sumarokov in his treatise “Instructions for those who want to be writers” gave a description of the content and style of classicist genres.

As a result of such research, a literary movement was created that had its own program, creative method and a coherent system of genres.

Artistic creativity was considered by classicists as strict adherence to “reasonable” rules, eternal laws created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient authors and French literature of the 17th century. According to the classic canons, there were “correct” and “incorrect” works. Even the works of Shakespeare were among the “wrong” ones. Strict rules existed for each genre and required the strictest adherence. The genres were distinguished by their “purity” and unambiguity. For example, it was not allowed to introduce “touching” episodes into a comedy, and comic ones into a tragedy. The classicists developed a strict system of genres. Genres were divided into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included the ode, the epic poem, and the eulogy. To the “low” - comedy, fable, epigram. True, Lomonosov also proposed “middle” genres - tragedy and satire, but tragedy gravitated towards the “high” genres, and satire - towards the “low” genres. In the “high” genres, heroes were depicted who could serve as role models - monarchs, generals, etc., the most popular of them was the image of Peter the Great. In the “low” genres, characters were depicted who were seized by one or another “passion”.

The basis of the creative method of the classicists was rationalistic thinking. The classicists sought to decompose human psychology into its simplest component forms. In this regard, in the literature of classicism, abstractly generalizing, without individualization, images arise (miser, prude, dandy, braggart, hypocrite, etc.). It should be noted that it was strictly forbidden to combine different “passions” and even more so “vices” and “virtues” in one character. The intimate, everyday aspects of the life of an ordinary (private) person were not of interest to classic writers. Their heroes, as a rule, are kings, generals, devoid of typical national features, abstract schemes, bearers of the author's ideas.

When creating dramatic works, equally strict rules had to be followed. These rules concerned " three unities" - place, time and action. The classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on stage, so the stage time had to be close to the time that the viewer spends in the theater. The duration of action could not exceed 24 hours - this unity of time. Unity of place due to the fact that the theater, divided into a stage and an auditorium, gave the audience the opportunity to see someone else's life. If the action is moved to another place, this illusion will be broken. Therefore, it was believed that it was best to play out the action in the same, permanent scenery; it was much worse, but it was acceptable when the events developed within the confines of one house, castle or palace. Unity of action required the presence in the play of only one storyline and a minimum number of characters. The strictest adherence to the three unities constrained the inspiration of playwrights. However, in such stage regulation there was a rational grain - the desire for a clear organization of a dramatic work, concentrating the viewer’s attention on the characters themselves and their relationships. All this made many theatrical performances of the era of Russian classicism true art.

Despite the strict regulation of creativity, the works of each of the classicists were distinguished by their individual characteristics. Thus, Kantemir and Sumarokov attached great importance to civic education. They called on the nobles to fulfill their public duty and denounced self-interest and ignorance. To achieve this goal, Kantemir wrote his satires, and Sumarokov wrote tragedies, where he subjected the monarchs themselves to harsh judgment, appealing to their civic duty and conscience.