The role of the church in the life of Western European medieval society, which many historians call Christian society or the Christian world, was comprehensive: religion and the church filled the entire life of a person in the feudal era from birth to death. The church claimed to govern society and performed many functions that later became the property of the state. The medieval church was organized on strictly hierarchical principles. It was headed by the Roman high priest - the pope, who had his own state in Central Italy; archbishops and bishops in all European countries were subordinate to him. These were the largest feudal lords, possessing entire principalities and belonging to the top of feudal society. Having monopolized culture, science, and literacy in a society consisting mainly of warriors and peasants, the church had enormous resources that subordinated the man of the feudal era to it. Skillfully using these means, the church concentrated enormous power in its hands: kings and lords, needing its help, showered it with gifts and privileges, trying to buy its favor and assistance.
At the same time, the church pacified society: it sought to smooth out social conflicts, calling for mercy towards the oppressed and disadvantaged, for an end to lawlessness, and for the distribution of alms to the poor. Poverty was even given moral priority. The Church attracts under its protection many peasants in need of protection, provides them with land for settlement, and encourages the liberation of other people's slaves, who at the same time became dependent on it.
In turbulent feudal times, people sought the protection of the monastery. The monastery was also the most demanding owner, preserving the most severe forms of feudal exploitation. The Church was the largest landowner in the feudal world and tirelessly increased its material wealth. Monasteries were among the first to switch to commodity farming, to production for the market, taking treasures and money for storage, and providing loans. Under the auspices of the church, in conjunction with church holidays, fairs and markets arise, pilgrimages to holy places merge with trade travel. Continuing to use economic power for its own purposes, the church in the XI-XIII centuries. in fact, he heads the trade and colonization movement of Europeans to the East (“crusades”), organizing huge monetary collections to finance them. After the cessation of the “campaigns,” these funds began to be used to strengthen the papal treasury.
The church organization reached its highest power in the 12th-13th centuries, turning into a powerful financial organization with unlimited power over its structures and exceptional political influence. Taking a conservative position, the church taught that each member of society should live in accordance with his legal and property status and not seek to change it. The ideology of the three “estates,” which spread in Europe in the 10th century, put monks in first place, people devoted to prayer and standing above society. There was a gradual aristocratization of the clergy and monasticism.
However, along with the official church doctrine in the Middle Ages, popular religiosity was widespread, going far beyond the framework of the church and Christian dogma. God was perceived as a mysterious force present in sacred places, the personification of goodness and justice. This popular religiosity was shared by the bulk of priests, with the exception of the church elite - learned bishops and abbots. Of great importance was the belief in intermediaries between God and people - angels and saints, in whom the laity were more attracted not by Christian virtues, but by the miracles they performed, perceived as proof of their power and holiness.
However, one cannot fail to note the positive role of the church and Christian doctrine in the formation of Medieval civilization. The Church cared for the sick, the poor, orphans and the elderly. She controlled education and book production. Thanks to the influence of Christianity, by the 9th century a fundamentally new understanding of family and marriage had established itself in medieval society; the familiar concept of “marriage” was absent in the late antique and ancient Germanic traditions, and there was no concept of “family” that is familiar to us then. In the early Middle Ages, marriages between close relatives were practiced; numerous marriage ties were common, which were also inferior to consanguineous ties. It was precisely this situation that the church struggled with: the problems of marriage, as one of the Christian sacraments, have become almost the main theme of many theological works since the 6th century. The fundamental achievement of the church of this period of history should be considered the creation of the marital unit as a normal form of family life that still exists today.
Even technological progress in medieval Europe was associated, according to many scientists, with the spread of Christian doctrine and, as a consequence, with a change in man’s relationship with nature. We are talking, in particular, about the rejection of the pre-Christian system of prohibitions and taboos that held back the development of agriculture: nature has ceased to be an object of religious worship and a source of fear. The new economic situation, technological improvements and inventions contributed to a significant increase in living standards, very stable throughout several centuries of the feudal era.
Thus, we can conclude that the Middle Ages were a natural and necessary stage in the development of Christian civilization. In Medieval European society, the human personality as a whole was valued higher than in Antiquity, if only because the medieval worldview, imbued with the spirit of Christianity, did not separate man from the world around him, due to his inclination towards a holistic vision of the world. Consequently, one cannot talk about the spiritual dictatorship of the church over medieval man, which supposedly hindered the development of personality. In Western Europe, the church usually played a stabilizing, conservative role, that is, it provided favorable conditions for personal development. It is impossible to imagine the spiritual quest of a medieval person outside the church. It was the knowledge of the world and God, inspired by church ideals, that gave birth to the colorful, diverse, living culture of the Middle Ages. It was the church that created universities and schools, encouraged theological debates and printing.
The history of the Middle Ages begins with the fall of the Roman Empire. The transition from ancient civilization to the Middle Ages was due, firstly, to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire as a result of the general crisis of the slave-owning mode of production and the associated collapse of the entire ancient culture. Secondly, the Great Migration of Peoples (from the 4th to the 7th centuries), during which dozens of tribes rushed to conquer new lands. The Western Roman Empire was unable to withstand the waves of barbarian invasions and ceased to exist in 476. As a result of barbarian conquests, dozens of different kingdoms arose on its territory. The third and most important factor that determined the process of formation of European culture was Christianity. Christianity became not only its spiritual basis, but also the integrating principle that allows us to talk about Western European culture as a single integral culture.
The role of the church in the life of Western European medieval society was very great. Religion and the church filled the entire life of a person of the feudal era from birth to death. The church claimed to govern society and performed many functions that later became the property of the state. The medieval church was organized on strictly hierarchical principles. It was headed by the Roman high priest - the pope, who had his own state in Central Italy. Archbishops and bishops in all European countries were subordinate to him. These were the largest feudal lords, who owned entire principalities and belonged to the top of feudal society. Having monopolized culture, science, and literacy in a society consisting mainly of warriors and peasants, the church had enormous resources that subordinated the man of the feudal era to it. Skillfully using these means, the church concentrated enormous power in its hands: kings and lords, needing its help, showered it with gifts and privileges, trying to buy its favor and assistance. church christianity european culture
The Church pacified society: it sought to smooth out social conflicts, calling for mercy towards the oppressed and disadvantaged, and for an end to lawlessness. The Church did not approve of open hostility towards the rural population. Its goal was to reduce social conflicts as much as possible. The Church sought to show mercy towards oppressed and disadvantaged people. She cared for the sick, the elderly, orphans and poor people.
In addition, poverty was even given moral priority. Over the course of 3-5 centuries, the church even condemned the love of wealth. But over time, when the church was the largest owner, in the literature of later times all this is displayed somewhat muted (The glorification of poverty prevails in all literary works of the Early Middle Ages).
The Church attracts under its protection many peasants in need of protection, provides them with land for settlement, and encourages the liberation of other people's slaves, who at the same time became dependent on it.
By the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century, all the main features of the feudal system took shape. The Christian religion became his dominant ideology. The Church held in its hands all spheres of human life. She filled people's lives - and organized their time, subordinating it to the rhythm of daily worship, determined judgments - and directed and controlled feelings, the church provided constant food for thought - and suggested the nature of entertainment.
In turbulent feudal times, people sought the protection of the monastery. The monastery was also the most demanding owner, preserving the most severe forms of feudal exploitation. The Church was the largest landowner in the feudal world and tirelessly increased its material wealth. Monasteries were among the first to switch to commodity farming, to production for the market, taking treasures and money for storage, and providing loans. Under the auspices of the church, in conjunction with church holidays, fairs and markets arise, pilgrimages to holy places merge with trade travel. Continuing to use economic power for its own purposes, the church in the XI-XIII centuries. in fact, he leads the trade and colonization movement of Europeans to the East, organizing huge monetary collections to finance them. After the cessation of the “campaigns,” these funds began to be used to strengthen the papal treasury.
The church organization reached its highest power in the 12th-13th centuries, turning into a powerful financial organization with unlimited power over its structures and exceptional political influence. The Church taught that each member of society should live in accordance with his legal and property status and not seek to change it. The ideology of the three “estates,” which spread in Europe in the 10th century, put monks in first place, people devoted to prayer and standing above society. There was a gradual aristocratization of the clergy and monasticism.
It was a relationship of dominance and submission. By subordinating the life of an individual to uniform standards for everyone, the corporation inevitably dictated to people a certain type of behavior, and moreover, a pattern of thoughts and feelings. In the early Middle Ages, this suppression of human individuality was not yet felt by people as something contrary to their nature. But the time will come when corporate ties will become a serious brake on the development of society.
Mass medieval culture was a bookless culture; sermons became the “translation” of the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite into a language accessible to all people. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking.
Also, it should be noted the feature of literature and culture of the Middle Ages. It lies in the fact that in a society, the bulk of which was illiterate, writing was not the main means of public communication. The medieval population was mostly unliterate and the culture of the Middle Ages was underdeveloped. For a long time, the dialects of the people and languages in Western Europe were the means of communication of people, they could not learn writing, and it remained completely under the rule of Latin. During the 5th-9th centuries, all primary educational institutions in Western European countries were under the authority of the church. She formed the curriculum and selected students. The main goal was to educate church ministers.
The methods and level of teaching in different schools were different, therefore, people’s education also changed. Throughout the 8th and 9th centuries, the development of mental life slowed down noticeably at the beginning of the 10th century. As a rule, the clergy were illiterate, and ignorance spread. Medieval Europeans, including the highest strata of the population, were largely illiterate. Even the priests in the parishes had a very low level of education.
However, one cannot fail to note the positive role of the church and Christian doctrine in the formation of Medieval civilization. She controlled education and book production. Thanks to the influence of Christianity, by the 9th century a fundamentally new understanding of family and marriage had established itself in medieval society; the familiar concept of “marriage” was absent in the late antique and ancient Germanic traditions, and there was no concept of “family” that is familiar to us then. In the early Middle Ages, marriages between close relatives were practiced; numerous marriage ties were common, which were also inferior to consanguineous ties. This is precisely the situation the church has been struggling with: the problems of marriage. Since the 6th century, this problem has become almost the main topic of many works. The fundamental achievement of the church of this period of history should be considered the creation of marriage as a normal form of family life, which still exists.
Thus, medieval culture is the result of a complex, contradictory synthesis of ancient traditions, the culture of barbarian peoples and Christianity. However, the influence of these three principles of medieval culture on its character was not equal. The dominant feature of medieval culture was Christianity, which acted as a new ideological support for the worldview and worldview of a person of that era, which determined the formation of medieval culture as an integrity.
Introduction
The Middle Ages lasted almost a thousand years - from the 5th to the 15th centuries. During this historical period, enormous changes took place in world history: the colossus of the Roman Empire collapsed, then Byzantium. After the conquest of Rome, barbarian tribes created their own states on the European continent with a defining national culture.
During this period, a lot of changes occur in the world in all areas of state development. These changes did not spare culture and religion. During the Middle Ages, each nation had its own history of cultural development and the influence of religion on it.
At all times, people needed to believe in something, hope for someone, worship someone, fear someone, explain the inexplicable with something, and all peoples had their own unknown. There were pagans, Muslims, Christians, etc.
At this time, Christianity was considered the main religion in the West and in Rus'. But, if the Russian Middle Ages were considered to be the 13th–15th centuries, then in the West it is the end of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, i.e. the most prolific years in the formation of Western European culture. In our country, at least the first two of these three centuries correspond to defeat, cultural isolation from the West and stagnation, from which Rus' was just beginning to climb out at the very end of the 14th and 15th centuries.
That is why I would like to separately understand how Christianity influenced the culture of Western European peoples and Rus'.
To understand how religion influenced culture, you need to understand how people lived at that time, what they thought about, what worried them and cared most about them then.
The establishment of Christianity as the state religion in some countries, starting from the 4th century, and its active spread led to a significant reorientation of all spheres of late antique spiritual culture into the mainstream of a new worldview system. All types of artistic activity were directly captured by this process. In fact, the formation of a new theory of art began, the preconditions of which had already developed in the early Christian period. The Fathers of the Church made their significant contribution to this process.
1. General characteristics of the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, natural farming was primitive, productive forces and technology were poorly developed. Wars and epidemics bled nations dry. The Inquisition suppressed any thought that ran counter to church dogma, brutally dealing with bearers of heretical teachings and those suspected of collaborating with the devil.
At this time, machines began to be used, windmills, a water wheel, steering, book printing and much more appeared.
The very concept of “the Middle Ages” cannot in any way be a kind of integrity. There are Early, High Middle Ages and Decline. Each period has its own characteristics of the spiritual sphere and culture.
The clash of cultural orientations gave rise to the multilayered and contradictory nature of the consciousness of medieval man. The commoner, living at the mercy of folk beliefs and primitive images, had the beginnings of a Christian worldview. An educated person was not completely free from pagan ideas. However, for everyone, religion was the undoubted dominant.
The essence of the medieval way of relating to the world was determined by the divine model of the world, which was supported by all the means available to the church (and the state subordinate to it). This model determined the features of the medieval era. The main features of this model are the following:
Specifically, the medieval understanding of the Universe, where God acts as the main world creative force, human intervention in divine affairs was unacceptable;
Medieval monotheism, in which the Universe was conceived as absolutely subordinate to God, to whom alone the laws of nature and the divine cosmos are accessible. This is a force infinitely more powerful than a person and dominated him;
Man is an insignificant, weak, sinful creature, a speck of dust in the divine world, and particles of the divine world are accessible to him only through the atonement of sins and the worship of God.
The central event of the medieval model of the world was God. The entire complex of the super-complex social hierarchy of events in the medieval world fit into this event. A special place in this hierarchy was occupied by the church, which was entrusted with a divine mission.
The main population of the Middle Ages were peasants.
2. The process of Christianization in the Middle Ages
The ideological position of the church was that it was actually on the side of the masters, being, moreover, the largest owner. And yet the church tried to smooth out conflicts in society, preaching equality before God, humility and the sanctity of poverty. The poor experience troubles and hardships on earth, but they are God's chosen ones, worthy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Poverty is a moral virtue.
The medieval church recognized work as a consequence of original sin. Working to get rich was condemned. The work of an ascetic - work to eradicate idleness, to curb the flesh, for moral improvement - was considered a godly deed.
Representations and assessments with the help of which participants in discussions achieve mutual understanding. The greatest invention of the Middle Ages can be considered the university as a principle and as a specialized organization. 2.2.3 Artistic culture of Medieval Europe. 2.2.3.1 Romanesque style. The first independent, specifically artistic European style of medieval Europe was Romanesque, ...
The most famous songs of the German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, and coats of arms. 3. Artistic culture of Medieval Europe 3.1 Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the context of a general decline in culture, immediately...
One of her most original genres was chronicle writing. Chronicles are not just monuments of literature or historical thought. They are the largest monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. Chronicles were not only records of events year after year. The chronicles included historical stories, lives of saints, theological treatises, legal documents, records of...
Determined policy in the field of education. The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity. An important layer in the formation of folk culture during the classical Middle Ages was sermons.
The bulk of society remained illiterate. In order for the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite to become the dominant thoughts of all parishioners, their... X
The Christian Church in the Middle Ages played the role of a connecting factor for European states. At the same time, the church also performed an identification function. After 1054 (the break with the Byzantine Patriarchate), the church turns into the center of political life in Europe (Vatican City, Rome, Italy).
According to the doctrine of St. Augustine, the church asserted and defended its priority over secular power. Not a single king could challenge the privileges of the pope or interfere in the political life of his own state. Of course, secular rulers were looking for ways to neutralize the strong and unnecessary influence of the Catholic Church. But these victories were rather the exception to the rule.
The main weapons in the fight against rebellious monarchs were the financial press and the institution of anathema. During the period of feudal irritability, kings were most dependent on the will of the Pope. The struggle for the integrity of the state required considerable funds, because the rebellious feudal lords were often richer than the overlord. Monetary assistance was provided in exchange for expanding the pope's influence in the region.
If the king turned out to obey the head of the Vatican, then the anathema mechanism was activated. Anathema is a church curse, eternal excommunication from the church of an objectionable person. Anathema entailed terrible, irreparable consequences.
The French king Henry VII fell into this trap, infamous for his campaign in Canossa, where after incredible humiliations he was nevertheless forgiven by the Pope.
Unlike secular power, the Catholic Church had a solid financial income - church tithes from peasants, generous gifts from powerful feudal lords and benefits provided by the monarch.
Education was controlled by “black and white cassocks”; everything that contradicted official morality was removed from the programs of schools and universities. The natural development of science was hampered by dogmatism: for example, among the victims of the geocentric model of the world was D. Bruno, who was declared a heretic. Another talented scientist, G. Galileo, who was more diplomatic, had to beg for forgiveness for a long time.
But these circumstances do not negate everything positive that was done by the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. Monasteries were the center of culture; many of them contained evidence of the great deeds of the Roman Empire. Literate monks painstakingly copied ancient scrolls.
The Church encouraged the development of such genres as all kinds of lives of saints and chronicles “from the Nativity of Christ.” Let us note that the Orthodox Church calculated chronology from the Creation of the world.
To dominate the minds, hearts and souls of its contemporaries, the church practiced various methods of monitoring changes in society. Of course, the methods chosen were not the cleanest, although they were effective. The arsenal includes surveillance, denunciations and good work of the Inquisition. There was an ongoing witch hunt. As a result, hundreds of thousands of “witches” were burned at the stake. Mass executions were practiced; up to 500 women were burned at the stake per day. Inquisitors, who are also the dark instruments of the Dominicans (Order of St. Dominic), in their search for heretics, were guided by the instructions of the treatise “The Hammer of the Witches.” The charges were absurd, the punishments were inhumane and cruel. Torture was used to force the victim to sign his own sentence. The most popular are the “iron maiden” hug, the Spanish boot, hanging by the hair, water torture. As a sign of protest, no less terrible “black masses” took place throughout Europe, which caused a new surge in “witch hunts.”
The influence of the Catholic Church began to decline sharply in the late Middle Ages, with the end of the centralization process. Secular power noticeably pushed the clergy away from government decision-making, which resulted in some liberalization of all aspects of life.
The church's position proved to be stable in those European countries where the rate of economic growth noticeably lagged behind the leaders (Italy, Spain).
Christianity was the core of European culture and provided transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. For a long time, historical and cultural literature was dominated by the view of the Middle Ages as the “dark ages.” The foundations of this position were laid by the Enlightenment. However, the cultural history of Western European society was not so clear, one thing is certain - all cultural life Medieval Europe of this period was largely determined by Christianity, which already in the 4th century. from persecuted it becomes the state religion in the Roman Empire.
From a movement in opposition to official Rome, Christianity turns into a spiritual, ideological support of the Roman state. At this time, at the Ecumenical Church Councils, a number of leading provisions of Christian doctrine were adopted - symbol of faith. These provisions are declared mandatory for all Christians. The basis of Christian teaching was the belief in the resurrection of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and the Divine Trinity.
The concept of the Divine Trinity was interpreted as follows. God is one in all three persons: God the Father - the creator of the world, God the Son, Jesus Christ - the Redeemer of sins and God the Holy Spirit - were absolutely equal and coeternal with each other. Ilyina E.A. Culturology / E.A. Ilyina, M.E. Burov. - M.: MIEMP, 2009. - P. 49.
Despite the strong discrepancy between the ideal and the real, the very social and everyday life of people in the Middle Ages was an attempt, a desire to embody Christian ideals in practical activities. Therefore, let us consider the ideals to which many efforts of people of that time were directed, and note the features of the reflection of these ideals in real life.
In the Middle Ages it was formed theological concept of culture(Greek theos - god), according to which God is the center of the universe, its active, creative principle, the source and cause of everything that exists. This is due to the fact that God is the absolute value. The medieval picture of the world, the religiosity of this culture is fundamentally and deeply different from all previous ones, i.e. pagan cultures. God in Christianity is One, Personal and Spiritual, that is, absolutely immaterial. God is also endowed with many virtuous qualities: God is All-Good, God is Love, God is Absolute Good.
Thanks to such a spiritual and absolutely positive understanding of God, man acquires special significance in the religious picture of the world. Man, the image of God, the greatest value after God, occupies a dominant place on Earth. The main thing in a person is the soul. One of the outstanding achievements of the Christian religion is the gift of free will to man, i.e. the right to choose between good and evil, God and the devil. Due to the presence of dark forces and evil, Medieval culture is often called dualistic (dual): at one pole there is God, angels, saints, at the other there is the Devil and his dark army (demons, sorcerers, heretics).
The tragedy of man is that he can abuse his free will. This is what happened to the first man - Adam. He deviated from the prohibitions of God towards the temptations of the devil. This process is called the Fall. Sin is the result of man's deviation from God. It is because of sin that suffering, war, disease and death entered the world.
According to Christian teaching, a person cannot return to God on his own. For this, a person needs an intermediary - a Savior. The saviors in the Medieval Christian picture of the world are Christ and His Church (in Western Europe - Catholic). Therefore, along with the category of sin, the problem of saving the soul of each person occupied a large role in the picture of the world of the Middle Ages.
Thus, in Christian ideology, the place of man is taken by God the creator, and the place of the concept of “culture,” so valued in antiquity, is taken by the concept of “cult.” From an etymological point of view, this concept also has the meaning of cultivation and improvement. However, the main emphasis in this concept is on care, worship and reverence. This refers to the veneration of a higher, supernatural power that controls the destinies of the world and man. According to the Christian concept, the meaning of human life is to prepare for the true life, the posthumous, otherworldly life. Therefore, everyday, earthly, real life loses its intrinsic value. It is considered only as preparation for eternal life, after death. The main emphasis is on the afterlife, afterlife retribution. Salvation is not given to everyone, but only to those who live according to the Gospel commandments.
The whole life of a person in the Middle Ages stands between two points of reference - sin and salvation. To escape the former and achieve the latter, a person is given the following conditions: following the Christian commandments, doing good deeds, avoiding temptations, confessing one’s sins, active prayer and church life not only for monks, but also for laity.
Thus, in Christianity the requirements for a person’s moral life are becoming more stringent. Basic Christian values - Faith Hope Love.
In the medieval era, the foundation of culture was based on an irrational (non-rational, super-rational) principle - faith. Faith is placed above reason. Reason serves faith, deepens and clarifies it. Therefore, all types of spiritual culture - philosophy, science, law, morality, art - serve religion and are subordinate to it.
Art was also subordinated to the theocentric idea. It sought to strengthen the religious worldview. There are many scenes of the Last Judgment: fear of the inevitable punishment for sins is brought up. A special tense psychological atmosphere. But there is also a powerful folk culture of laughter, where all these values have been subjected to comic rethinking. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences (law, natural science, philosophy, logic) - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The clergy was the only educated class, and it was the church for a long period that determined educational policy.
All V-IX centuries. schools in Western European countries were in the hands of the church. The church drew up a curriculum and selected students. the main task monastic schools was defined as the education of church ministers. The Christian Church preserved and used elements of secular culture left over from the ancient education system. In church schools, disciplines inherited from antiquity were taught - the “seven liberal arts”: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics with elements of logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.
There were also secular schools, where young men who were not intended for a church career were educated, children from noble families studied there (many such schools were opened in England in the second half of the 9th century). In the 11th century was opened in Italy on the basis of the Bologna Law School first university ( 1088), which became the largest center for the study of Roman and canon law. Students and professors united in universities in order to achieve independence from the city and have the right of self-government. The university was divided into fraternities - an association of students from a particular country, and faculties where they acquired this or that knowledge. In England, the first university was opened in Oxford in 1167, then the university in Cambridge. The most prominent university scientist in England in the 13th century. There was Roger Bacon (about 1214-1292), who put forward reason and experience rather than church authorities as the main method of knowledge. The largest and first of the universities in France was the Paris Sorbonne (1160). It united four faculties: general education, medicine, law and theology. Just like other large universities, students from all European countries flocked here. Right there.
Medieval university science was called scholasticism ( from gr. schoolboy, scientist). Its the most characteristic features there was a desire to rely on authorities, primarily church ones, an underestimation of the role of experience as a method of knowledge, a combination of theological and dogmatic premises with rationalistic principles, and an interest in formal and logical problems.
A new and extremely important phenomenon testifying to the development of urban culture was the creation in cities non-church schools: These were private schools, financially independent of the church. The teachers of these schools lived off the fees collected from the students. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population. Outstanding master of France in the 12th century. There was Peter Abelard (1079-1142), philosopher, theologian and poet, who founded a number of non-church schools. He owns the famous essay “Yes and No,” in which issues of dialectical logic were developed. In his lectures, which were extremely popular among the townspeople, he asserted the primacy of knowledge over faith. Right there.
In Christianity, a different understanding of man is formed in comparison with the ancient one. The ancient ideal is the harmony of spirit and body, physical and spiritual. The Christian ideal is the victory of the spirit over the body, asceticism. In Christianity, priority is given to the soul, the spiritual principle. And a derogatory attitude is formed towards the body. It was believed that the body was sinful, perishable, a source of temptation, a temporary refuge for the soul. And the soul is eternal, immortal, perfect, it is a particle of the divine principle in man. A person must take care first of all of his soul.
Speaking about the differences between ancient and medieval ideals, we should pay attention to this point. The ancient ideal - a harmonious personality - was completely feasible, achievable, real. The medieval ideal, like the horizon, was unattainable. Because the medieval ideal is God, absolute perfection (goodness, goodness, love, justice). Man is always sinful, and he only approaches this ideal to one degree or another. Therefore, the cultural development of man is understood as a constant elevation, ascent to the ideal, God, the absolute, as a process of overcoming the sinful and establishing the divine in man.
Played a huge role in the life of society of that time monasticism: the monks took upon themselves the obligations of “leaving the world,” celibacy, and renunciation of property. However, already in the 6th century, monasteries turned into strong, often very rich centers, owning movable and immovable property. Many monasteries were centers of education and culture. So, in England at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. The Venerable Bede lived in one of the monasteries, Ibid. one of the most educated people of his time, the author of the first major work on English history. From the middle of the 12th century. The most mobile and educated part of the population, receptive to spiritual food, is concentrated in rapidly developing cities. The mendicant orders were part of urban spiritual movements and at the same time a reaction to their heretical excesses. One of the most important aspects of the orders' activities was pastoral service, primarily preaching and confession. From their midst came the greatest theologians of the Middle Ages - Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas.
Although medieval culture had ideological, spiritual and artistic integrity, the dominance of Christianity did not make it completely homogeneous. One of its essential features was the emergence in it secular culture, which reflected the cultural self-awareness and spiritual ideals of the military-aristocratic class of medieval society - chivalry and the new social stratum that emerged in the mature Middle Ages - the townspeople. Koryakina, E.P. Culture of medieval Western Europe: features, values, ideals[Electronic resource] / E.P. Koryakina. - Access mode: http: //avt. miem.edu.ru/Kafedra/Kt/Publik/posob_4_kt.html#Christianity as the main factor in the formation of medieval culture
Secular culture, being one of the components of Western European medieval culture, remained Christian in nature. At the same time, the very image and lifestyle of the knights and townspeople predetermined their focus on earthly things, developed special views, ethical standards, traditions, and cultural values. They recorded human abilities and values necessary for military service and communication among feudal lords. In contrast to the asceticism defended by the church, the knightly culture glorified earthly joys and values, such as love, beauty, and service to a beautiful lady.
A special cultural layer of the Middle Ages was represented by folk culture. Throughout the Middle Ages, remnants of paganism and elements of folk religion were preserved in folk culture. She opposed official culture and developed her own view of the world, which reflected the close connection of man with nature. Centuries after the adoption of Christianity, Western European peasants continued to secretly pray and make sacrifices to the old pagan shrines. Under the influence of Christianity, many pagan deities were transformed into evil demons. Special magical rituals were performed in case of crop failure, drought, etc. Ancient beliefs in sorcerers and werewolves persisted among peasants throughout the Middle Ages. To combat evil spirits, various amulets were widely used, both verbal (all kinds of spells) and material (amulets, talismans). In almost every medieval village one could meet a witch who could not only cause damage, but also heal.
Laughable folk culture, folk holidays and carnivals fed heretical movements and, along with the knightly culture, represented the secular, worldly principle in the culture of the Middle Ages. However, just like in society, there was a hierarchy of values in culture. Different cultures were valued differently. In the first place was religious, church culture. Courtly, knightly culture was recognized as necessary, but less valuable. Pagan folk culture was viewed as sinful and base. Thus, in the Middle Ages, religious culture subjugated all types of secular culture.
The most vivid and deeply Christian worldview was conveyed in the art of the Middle Ages. The artists of the Middle Ages paid their main attention to the otherworldly, Divine world; their art was considered as the Bible for the illiterate, as a means of introducing a person to God and comprehending His essence. The Catholic cathedral served as an artistic and religious embodiment of the image of the entire universe.
The Early Middle Ages is the period of dominance of the Romanesque style. Romanesque architecture is perceived as a heavy, oppressive, great silence, personifying the stability of a person’s worldview, his “horizontalism,” “groundedness.” From the end of the 13th century. The Gothic style becomes the leading one. For its lightness and delicacy it was called frozen, silent music, “a symphony in stone.” Unlike the harsh monolithic, imposing Romanesque temples and castles, Gothic cathedrals are decorated with carvings and decorations, many sculptures, they are full of light, directed into the sky, their towers rose up to 150 meters. Masterpieces of this style are the cathedrals of Notre Dame, Reims, and Cologne.
Thus, the culture of the Middle Ages in Western Europe marked the beginning of a new direction in the history of civilization - the establishment of Christianity not only as a religious teaching, but also as a new worldview and attitude that significantly influenced all subsequent cultural eras. Although, as we know, the Christian ideal of man was not realized in medieval society. Now we understand that the ideal may not correspond to the logic of life itself, the historical reality underlying culture. Right there.
Another thing is important - we judge a culture by the ideals that it has put forward and which have shaped the mentality of its people, which cements the unity of the cultural tradition. Despite all the contradictory nature of the sociocultural process, medieval culture was characterized by deep psychologism and keen attention to the human soul and the inner world of man.
The Middle Ages should not be viewed as a period of failure in the development of Western European culture from antiquity to modern times. Despite all the inconsistency of the cultural process, it is more legitimate to assert that it was at this time that the most important features of the Western European Christian type of culture took shape on the basis of the widespread spread of Christianity. Radugin A.A. Culturology / A.A. Radugin. - M.: Center, 2001. - P. 170. . The spiritual and moral crisis of European civilization allows us to see the merits of medieval culture, forces us to rethink the most important achievements of its spiritual culture, its values and ideals - the ideas of mercy, selfless virtue, condemnation of acquisitiveness, the idea of the universality of man and many others.
Christianity culture Middle Ages
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