Written speech as a special type of speech activity. Syntax: Dictionary-reference book What is Written Speech, what does it mean and how to write it correctly

The abstract reflects following topics: Characteristics of written speech. Features of written speech. The difference between written and spoken language. Written speech of a child and an adult. Mastering writing and the prerequisites for its formation.

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GBS(K)OSH boarding school of the VIII type, urban settlement. Urussu, teacher-speech therapist Galyautdinova Zulfiya Abuzarovna

Topic: Characteristics of written speech.

Plan.

Introduction.

1. Characteristics of written speech.
2. Features of written speech.

1. The difference between written and spoken language.

3. Mastering writing and the prerequisites for its formation.

Conclusion.

Literature.

Introduction.

Writing is a human-created auxiliary sign system that is used to record sound language and sound speech. At the same time, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of recording oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions: written speech makes it possible to assimilate the knowledge accumulated by a person and expands the scope of human communication. By reading books and historical documents from different times and peoples, we can touch the history and culture of all mankind. It is thanks to writing that we learn about the great civilizations of ancient Egypt, Sumerians, Incas, Mayans, etc. Writing has come a long way historical development from the first notches on the trees, rock paintings to the sound-letter type that most people use today, i.e. written language is secondary to oral. Letters used in writing are signs that represent speech sounds. The sound shells of words and parts of words are depicted by combinations of letters; knowledge of the letters allows them to be reproduced in sound form, i.e. read any text. Punctuation marks used in writing serve to divide speech: periods, commas, dashes correspond to intonation pauses in oral speech. This means that the letters are material form written speech.

The main function of written speech is to record oral speech, with the goal of preserving it in space and time. Writing serves as a means of communication between people when direct communication is impossible, when they are separated by space and time. The development of a technical means of communication - the telephone - has reduced the role of writing. The advent of the fax and the spread of the Internet help overcome space and reactivate the written form of speech.

The main property of written speech is the ability to store information for a long time.

Written speech unfolds not in a temporary, but in a static space, which allows the writer to think through the speech, return to what was written, rebuild the text, replace words, etc. In this regard, the written form of speech has its own characteristics.

1. Characteristics of written speech.

Written speech is special kind activity, which includes three levels (psychological, sensorimotor, linguistic).

At the psychological level it is carried out:

1) the emergence of intention, motive for writing;

2) creation of a plan;

3) creation of a general meaning based on the plan;

4) regulation of activities and monitoring of performed actions.

The sensorimotor level is divided into two sublevels: sensoroacousticomotor and optomotor sublevels. The sensory-acoustic-motor sublevel determines the process of sound discrimination, creates the basis for the operations of acoustic and kinesthetic analysis of sounds and words, for the ability to identify stable phonemes and articulomes; ensures the establishment of the sequence of writing letters in a word, which is possible with intact auditory-verbal memory. The optomotor sublevel is responsible for transcoding (transcoding) from one code to another:

1. when writing - from a sound to a letter, from a letter to a complex of subtle movements of the hand;
2. When reading, letters are correlated with the corresponding sounds. At the same time, complex relationships between sound and letter, between phoneme and grapheme are noted.

Transfer from one level to another is possible only thanks to the interacting work of a number of analyzing systems and the high level organization of speech. To implement written speech, it is necessary: ​​generalized ideas about the sounds of a given language system, stable connections between sounds and letters that mean these sounds and generalized into stable graphemes.

At the linguistic level, the translation of internal meaning takes place, which is formed at the psychological level into linguistic codes - lexicomorphological and syntactic units.

Written speech is ensured by the work of a number of analyzers responsible for the psychophysiological basis of this process: acoustic, optical, kinesthetic, kinetic, proprioceptive, spatial, etc.

Thus, when writing and sound analysis is provided working together acoustic and kinesthetic analyzers, the recoding of sounds and letters is provided by acoustic, kinesthetic and optical analyzers; when writing a letter, the work of optical, spatial and motor analyzers is carried out, providing subtle movements of the hand.

Each level is realized through the work of different parts of the cerebral cortex:

1. the psychological level is carried out due to the work of the frontal parts of the brain (antero-posterior and medeo-basal parts of the frontal region of the CGM);
2. psychophysiological level - due to the posterior frontal, inferior parietal, temporal, posterior temporal, anterior occipital regions;
3. linguistic level - due to the anterior and posterior speech zones, providing syntagmatics and paradigmatics.

Thus, for the implementation of written speech, it is necessary to have all three structural levels that are part of the activity in general.

2. Features of written speech.

2.1. The difference between written and spoken language.

Oral speech and written speech are two forms of speech function. Both are the main means of communication in human society.Oral speech is formed first, and written speech - a superstructure over already mature oral speech - uses all its ready-made mechanisms, improving and significantly complicating them, adding to them new mechanisms specific to new form expressions of language.

Written speech is mastered purposefully during the learning process. Oral speech develops in the process of practical communication between the child and adults, mainly on the basis of imitation. Written speech is characterized by the participation of a larger number of analyzers (visual-auditory-motor). In written speech there are higher requirements for the selection of words and the construction of phrases. Written speech proceeds without correction from the interlocutor. Written speech is devoid of living means of communication - facial expressions, gestures. The unit of written speech is the monologue. Written speech is contextual, self-generating, activating and controlling. It is abstract, discrete, divisible into minimal segments, letters.

Oral speech is a sound unity; its segmentation from an acoustic-physiological point of view does not coincide with linguistic division. In oral speech, clearly sounding elements are combined with reduced ones; in the act of writing there is an active or hidden full type utterances. Oral speech is characterized by auditory and kinesthetic control; Written speech is characterized by visual and kinesthetic control.

2.2. Written speech of a child and an adult.

In the process of its development, written speech changes significantly.

For a person just starting to write, the following processes are in the foreground:

1. sound analysis of a word, writing each individual letter, maintaining their required order;
2. the writer relies on pronouncing what he writes. That is, the child is aware of the technical side of writing. Writing letter elements becomes an action because there is a goal. A child's writing is a process of developing skills, an incoherent process.

A person who has a fairly automated writing skill uses the already established skills of writing not only individual letters, but also syllables, sound complexes and even whole words. That is, adult writing is characterized by unawareness of the technical side, and the main goal is to convey semantic content and information. Only in certain cases does writing technique become a goal (when you need to write beautifully, stylized); This is an automated process, characterized by coherence and greater speed than that of a child.

3. Mastering writing and the prerequisites for its formation.

Written speech is learned consciously; maturation of brain structures and preparedness of mental functions and processes involved in writing are necessary. To master writing, the formation of simultaneous and successive abilities, the formation of inter-analyzer interaction, and a sufficient level of sensory development of the child (auditory perception, visual perception, spatial relation and representation, developed psychomotor skills). It is also necessary to have sufficient development of higher mental functions (memory, attention, thinking), a sufficient level of formation of the child’s cognitive and intellectual activity, and a sufficient level of development of oral speech.

According to A.N. Leontyev, the psychophysiological structure of writing can be represented in the following three operations:

1. symbolization process,
2. modeling process sound structure words using graphic symbols,
3. graphomotor operations.

The prerequisites for the formation of these operations are:

The skill of symbolization, which is formed in symbolic games with the replacement of objects, in visual activities;

Development of a child’s phonemic awareness;

Mastery of phonemic analysis, which is necessary for modeling the sound structure of words using letters (establishing a temporal sequence of phonemes, transforming a temporal sequence of phonemes into a spatial sequence of letters in parallel with graphomotor operations of writing letters);

Formed graphomotor skills, depending on visual-motor coordination.

There are four stages of mastering writing.

1) Approximate stage - child preschool age learns to handle paper and pen, develops hand movements, visual analysis, and awareness of writing as a means of communication.

2) Analytical stage - pre-primary and primer periods schooling, on which motor skills develop when writing elements of letters and their connections and the connection between sound and letter is made.

3) Analytical-synthetic stage - the post-letter period, which includes the transition to combining letters in a word; the process of synthesis predominates.

4) Synthetic stage - closer to high school. During this period, writing becomes automated, writing technique becomes secondary, and the main focus is on the presentation of thoughts.

Conclusion.

Thus, written speech is one of the forms of existence of language, opposed to oral speech. This is a secondary, later in time form of the existence of language. For various forms primary linguistic activity can be both oral and written speech (compare folklore and fiction). If oral speech separated man from the animal world, then writing should be considered the greatest of all inventions created by mankind. Written speech not only revolutionized the methods of accumulating, transmitting and processing information, but it changed man himself, especially his ability to think abstractly.

Written speech uses bookish language, the use of which is quite strictly standardized and regulated. The order of words in a sentence is fixed; inversion (changing the order of words) is not typical for written speech, but in some cases, for example, in texts formal business style speech is unacceptable. The sentence, which is the basic unit of written speech, expresses complex logical and semantic connections through syntax. Written speech is characterized by complex syntactic constructions, participial and participial phrases, common definitions, inserted constructions, etc. When combining sentences into paragraphs, each of them is strictly related to the preceding and following context.

Written speech is focused on perception by the visual organs, therefore it has a clear structural and formal organization: it has a page numbering system, division into sections, paragraphs, a system of links, font selection, etc.

You can return to a complex text more than once, think about it, comprehend what has been written, having the opportunity to look through this or that passage of text with your eyes.

Written speech is distinguished by the fact that in its very form speech activity find a certain reflection of the conditions and purpose of communication, for example work of art or a description of a scientific experiment, a leave application, or information message in the newspaper. Consequently, written speech has a style-forming function, which is reflected in the choice of linguistic means that are used to create a particular text. The written form is the main form of existence of speech in scientific, journalistic, official business and artistic styles.

Literature.

1. Altukhova T.A. Correction of reading disorders in students primary classes with learning difficulties. Belgor. state University, 1998.
2. Zhinkin N.I. Development of written speech among students in grades III-VII. Language. Speech. Creation. M. Labyrinth. 1998.
3. Kazartseva O.M. Vishnyakova O.V. Written speech. M. Flint. Science, 1998.
4. Lvov M.R. Methods of speech development for junior schoolchildren. M. Enlightenment. 1985.
5. Sadovnikova N.I. Disorders of written speech and their overcoming in primary schoolchildren. M. VLADOS. 1995.
6. Russian E.N. Methods for developing independent written speech in children. M. IRIS PRESS. 2005.
7. Elkonin D.B. Development of students' oral and written speech. M. INTOR. 1998.

Parents of kindergarten-aged children are concerned about how their child speaks, but mothers and fathers of schoolchildren have other problems. As soon as school begins, your child may experience difficulties with written speech. And very often this does not mean that your treasure is not gnawing too hard on the granite of science. Learning difficulties may be associated with speech disorders.

Written speech

Experts refer to writing as the process of writing letters, words and text itself, as well as their reproduction “from a sheet of paper,” that is, reading.
The formation of written speech is a conscious process, the result of targeted learning. Accordingly, some difficulties may arise in children due to imperfections psychological sphere- attention, perseverance, concentration, motivation to study. However, educational measures are not always the method of overcoming problems. Often, writing problems have more serious causes that do not depend on the diligence of your schoolchild.

In order for written speech to be formed correctly, several components are necessary:

1. A developed system of mental factors - memory, thinking, attention, imagination, ability to self-control, analysis and synthesis.
2. Developed motor skills, fine motor skills.
3. Ability to perceive - visual, phonemic.
4. Correct and well-developed oral speech.

The last point is by no means less significant. It is the level of development of oral speech that is the basis on which a new skill will be built. For this reason, it is extremely important to solve all possible speech therapy problems in a child before starting school.

Impaired written language may manifest itself in different types depending on the presence of certain problems. Contacting a speech therapist will help you cope with them and help your child succeed in school.

1. Dyslexia

If your child has difficulty learning to read, he or she may have dyslexia.

It is characterized by:

• Letters in words are read incorrectly (merging with subsequent/previous ones, “swallowing”, substitutions).
• The accents are placed in the wrong place.
• The word is not read to the end.
• During the reading process, words are skipped or rearranged, lines are lost, and transition from one line to another is difficult.

As a rule, dyslexia is associated with speech hearing impairment. It is difficult for a child to distinguish sounds that are similar in pronunciation. Important factors are also the sufficient development of the ability to analyze and synthesize, maintain attention and accuracy of perception.

2. Dysgraphia

Constant errors in writing, not related to knowledge of spelling rules, are characteristic feature dysgraphia. These mistakes are illogical and even unexpected for teachers and parents. “Cow” can turn into “krova”, “April” into “atrel”, letters are turned upside down, and words in a separate sentence are not connected to each other.

Edifications, traditional activities with the child and even punishment cannot lead to results. The whole point is that dysgraphia does not arise from the child’s disobedience, but due to the insufficient formation of higher mental functions and violations of various components of speech.

3. Acoustic dysgraphia

It is expressed in the replacement of letters with ones that are similar in sound, incorrectly indicating the softness of the sound. This process is associated with the inability to connect a sound with a letter and the correct perception and analysis of what is heard.

Moreover, the child pronounces all sounds during speech correctly; he has no problems with articulation.

For example: “letter” - “writing”, “singing” - “fighting”.

4. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia

This option occurs when there are problems with sound perception and pronunciation of sounds. That is, the child “writes what he hears.”

• arbitrarily uses voiced and voiceless consonants in writing, changing their places;
• alternates between whistling and hissing sounds;
• skips a soft sign;
• mixes affricates and their components;
• randomly changes vowels of the first and second rows.

The problem cannot be solved until the speech therapist establishes the correct articulation of all sounds and masters phonemic hearing skills.

For example: “cat” - “koska”, “swing” - “rollers”.

5. Agrammatic dysgraphia

In this case, during writing, the grammatical structure of speech is disrupted:

• the connection between words in a sentence is disrupted, phrases are not consistent with each other;
• nouns are placed in wrong number, case or gender;
• prefixes and suffixes are replaced;
• the structure of the sentence itself changes.

The problem becomes noticeable by grade 3, when grammar skills become a necessary condition for study. Parents should be careful.

Example: " Beautiful car", "Katya and Lena are traveling by car."

6. Optical dysgraphia

Letters consist of a certain set of elements - hooks, sticks, circles, ovals, etc. If there are problems with visual-spatial perception, the process of analysis and synthesis, schoolchildren may experience typical errors:

• letters are written in mirror image;
• extra elements appear in the letters (“porridge” - “kashshsha”);
• the details of the letters “come off” from each other or a gap appears between the written
• letters in one word;
• visually similar letters are replaced (v - d, t - p, i - sh).

7. Dysgraphia that occurs when the processes of analysis and synthesis are disrupted

This option occurs quite often, so parents need to pay attention if the child regularly repeats errors of this kind:

• syllables and individual syllables are swapped or omitted altogether (“doll” - “kulka”, “cook”, etc.);
• words are not completed;
• additional letters appear in words (“machine” - “maashina”);
• prepositions are written together with words, and prefixes, on the contrary, are written separately;
• In words, individual syllables from neighboring words are mixed up.

Let us repeat, the point here is not that the child is not trying hard enough or is not doing his homework diligently enough. Dysgraphia problems have deeper roots. The child definitely needs the help of a speech therapist.

Correct diagnosis of the condition and timely corrective measures can correct the situation and add positive grades to the diary and motivation to study.

8. Dysorphography

There is another problem with writing. Dysorthography is a persistent inability to apply spelling rules in practice. A sign of this condition is frequent spelling errors in schoolchildren with a normal level of intellectual ability. Even after learning a rule by heart, a child cannot apply it in practice, so mistakes are repeated again and again.

Experts believe that the cause of dysorgraphia is insufficiently developed knowledge of word-formation analysis, reduced motivation for learning, and delayed development of higher mental functions (attention, memory, thinking, ability to analyze and synthesize).

To solve all these problems, you should contact specialists. Speech therapy classes, built taking into account the child’s characteristics, will help cope with violations, and ultimately your student will become more successful.

In addition, it is important to understand the fact that difficulties in mastering written language are much easier to prevent rather than correct. Work should begin in preschool age, before learning to write begins. Well-developed oral speech, timely consultations and classes with a speech therapist will help the child avoid many difficulties while studying at school.

Written speech is one of the types of speech, along with oral and internal, and includes writing and reading.

The most complete and detailed psychological and psycholinguistic characteristics written form speech is presented in the studies of L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, L. S. Tsvetkova, A. A. Leontyev and others (50, 153, 155, 254). In the theory and methodology of speech therapy, psycholinguistic analysis of the processes of reading and writing, which constitute the written form of speech activity, is presented in the works of R. I. Lalaeva (146 and others).

Written speech, by its communicative nature, is predominantly monologue speech. It is such “by its origin,” although in “ modern history» human society Dialogue options for verbal communication in written form have also become quite widespread (primarily thanks to such a unique means of mass communication as the Internet - communication through computer communications).

The history of the development of writing shows that written speech is a specific “human artificial memory” and it arose from primitive mnemonic signs.

At some point in human history, people began to record information, their thoughts, in some permanent way. The methods changed, but the goal - preserving (“fixing”) information, communicating it to other people (in conditions when verbal communication through “live” speech communication is impossible) - remained unchanged. In this regard, tying knots for memory can be considered a “prototype” of written speech. The beginning of the development of writing rests on aids. Thus, in the ancient Indian state of the Maya, “knot records,” the so-called “quipu,” were widely developed to maintain chronicles, to preserve information from the life of the state and other information.

The development of writing in the history of mankind passed through a number of “stage” periods.

At first, drawings-symbols (“pictograms”) were used for “written” communication, which later, through simplification and generalization, turned into ideograms, which are actually the first written signs. For the first time such a letter was created by the Assyrians. This method of writing clearly symbolized the general idea of ​​speech, since each sign (ideogram) used in it “denoted” a whole phrase or a separate speech utterance. Later, ideograms were “transformed” into hieroglyphs that denoted a whole word. Over time, signs were created on their basis, which were a combination of letter signs; this type of writing - syllabic (syllabic) writing - originated in Egypt and Asia Minor (Ancient Phenicia). And only several centuries later, based on the generalization of experience in the written recording of thoughts, ideas and other information, an alphabetic letter (from the Greek letters a and p - “alpha” and “beta”) appears, in which one letter sign denotes one sound; this letter was created in Ancient Greece.

Thus, the development of writing went in the direction of moving away from imagery and closer to sounding speech. At first, writing developed historically as if independently from oral speech, and only later began to be mediated by it.

Modern written language is alphabetic in nature; in it, the sounds of oral speech are designated by certain letters. (True, this “sound-letter” relationship does not take place in all modern languages). For example, in English, Greek or Turkish, the oral “speech modality” is quite different from the written one. This fact alone speaks of the complex relationship between writing and oral speech: they are closely related to each other, but their “speech unity” also includes significant differences. The multidimensional relationship between written and oral speech has been the subject of research by many domestic scientists - A. R. Luria, B. G. Ananyev, L. S. Tsvetkov, R. E. Levina, R. I. Lalaeva, etc. (119, 155, 254, etc.)

Despite the fact that written speech arose and developed as specific form displaying the content of oral speech (with the help of graphic signs specially created for this), at the present stage of socio-historical development it has turned into an independent and in many ways “self-sufficient” type of human speech activity.

Written monologue speech can appear in various forms: in the form of a written message, report, written narrative, written expression of thought in the form of reasoning, etc. In all these cases, the structure of written speech differs sharply from the structure of oral dialogical or oral monologue speech (98, 153, 155 ).

Firstly, written monologue speech is speech without an interlocutor; its motive and intent (in the typical version) are completely determined by the subject of speech activity. If the motive for writing is contact (“-tact”) or desire, demand (“-mand”), then the writer must mentally imagine the person to whom he is addressing, imagine his reaction to his message. The peculiarity of written speech is, first of all, that the entire process of control over written speech remains within the intellectual activity of the writer himself, without correction of writing or reading by the addressee. But in those cases when written speech is aimed at clarifying a concept (“-cept”), it does not have any interlocutor, a person writes only in order to understand the thought, to translate his idea “into speech form”, to develop it without any or mental contact with the person to whom the message is addressed (332, 342).

The differences between oral and written speech are most clearly manifested in the psychological content of these processes. S. L. Rubinstein (197), comparing these two types of speech, wrote that oral speech is, first of all, situational speech (largely determined by the situation of verbal communication). This “situational nature” of speech is determined by a number of factors: firstly, in colloquial speech it is due to the presence of a general situation, which creates a context within which the transmission and reception of information is significantly simplified. Secondly, oral speech has a number of emotionally expressive means that facilitate the communication process, making the transmission and reception of information more accurate and economical; nonverbal signs of speech activity - gestures, facial expressions, pausing, voice intonation - also create situational character of oral speech. Thirdly, in oral speech there is a number of means that depend on the motivational sphere and directly or indirectly represent a manifestation of general mental and speech activity.

“Written speech,” as A. R. Luria pointed out, “has almost no extra-linguistic, additional means of expression” (155, p. 270). By its structure, written speech is always speech in the absence of an interlocutor. Those means of encoding thoughts in a speech utterance that occur in oral speech without awareness are here the subject of conscious action. Since written speech does not have any extra-linguistic means (gestures, facial expressions, intonation), it must have sufficient grammatical completeness, and only this grammatical completeness makes it possible to make a written message sufficiently understandable.

Written speech does not presuppose either mandatory knowledge of the subject of speech (the displayed situation) by the addressee, nor “sympractical” (within the framework of joint activity) contact between the “sender” and the “addressee”; it does not have paralinguistic means in the form of gestures, facial expressions, intonation, pauses, which play the role of “semantic (meaning) markers” in monologue oral speech. As a partial replacement for these latter, techniques for highlighting individual elements of the presented text in italics or paragraphs can be used. Thus, all information expressed in written speech should be based only on a sufficiently complete use of the detailed grammatical means of the language (116, 155, 254).

Hence, written speech should be as synsemantic as possible (contextually “semantically filled”), and the linguistic (lexical and grammatical) means it uses should be adequate to express the content of the transmitted message. At the same time, the writer must structure his message in such a way that the reader can make the entire return journey from detailed, external speech to the internal meaning, the main idea of ​​the text being presented (155, 226).

The process of understanding written speech differs sharply from the process of understanding oral speech in that what is written can always be reread, that is, one can arbitrarily return to all the links included in it, which is almost impossible when understanding oral speech. (The exception is the option of its complete /identical to the original/ recording using various “technical means”.)

Another significant difference in the psychological structure of written speech from oral speech is associated with the fact of the completely different “origin” of both types of speech during ontogenesis. L. S. Vygotsky wrote that written speech, having a close connection with oral speech, nevertheless, in the most essential features of its development, does not in any way repeat the history of the development of oral speech. “Written speech is also not a simple translation of oral speech into written signs, and mastering written speech is not simply mastering the technique of writing” (50, p. 236).

As A.R. Luria points out, oral speech is formed in the process of natural communication between a child and an adult, which was previously “sympractical” * and only then becomes a special, independent form of oral speech communication. “However, it... always retains elements of connection with the practical situation, gesture and facial expressions. Written speech has a completely different origin and a different psychological structure” (155, p. 271). If oral speech appears in a child in the 2nd year of life, then writing is formed only in the 6-7th year. While spoken language emerges directly from interactions with adults, written language is developed only through regular, deliberate learning (138, 142, 278).

Motivation for written speech also arises later in the child than the motives for oral speech. From teaching practice It is well known that it is quite difficult to create motives for writing in a child of senior preschool age, since he gets along just fine without it (148, 254).

Written speech appears only as a result of special training, which begins with the conscious mastery of all means of expressing thoughts in writing. At the early stages of the formation of written speech, its subject is not so much the thought that is to be expressed, but rather those technical means of writing letters, and then words, that have never been the subject of awareness in oral, dialogic or monologue speech. At the first stage of mastering written language, the main subject of attention and intellectual analysis are the technical operations of writing and reading; The child develops motor writing skills and “tracing” gaze skills when reading. “A child who learns to write initially operates not so much with thoughts, but with means of their external expression, ways of designating sounds, letters and words. Only much later does the subject of the child’s conscious actions become the expression of thoughts” (155, p. 271).

Such “auxiliary”, intermediate operations of the speech generation process, such as the operation of isolating phonemes from a sound stream, representing these phonemes with a letter, synthesizing letters in a word, sequential transition from one word to another, which were never fully realized in oral speech, still remain in written speech. for a long time the subject of the child’s conscious actions. Only after written speech is automated do these conscious actions turn into unconscious operations and begin to occupy the place that similar operations (singling out sound, finding articulation, etc.) occupy in oral speech (117, 254).

Thus, conscious analysis of the means of written expression of thought becomes one of the essential psychological characteristics of written speech.

Based on the above, it becomes obvious that written speech requires abstraction for its development. Compared to oral speech, it is doubly abstract: firstly, the child must abstract from sensory, sounding and spoken speech, and secondly, he must move on to abstract speech, which uses not words, but “representations of words.” The fact that written speech (internally) “is thought and not spoken represents one of the main distinguishing features of these two types of speech and a significant difficulty in the formation of written speech” (254, p. 153).

This characteristic of written activity makes it possible to consider oral and written speech as two levels within the framework of language (linguistic) and psychological structure human speech activity. H. Jackson, a 19th-century English neurologist, viewed writing and understanding what is written as the manipulation of “symbols of symbols.” The use of oral speech, according to L. S. Vygotsky, requires primary symbols, and writing requires secondary ones, and therefore he defined writing activity as a symbolic activity of the second level, an activity that uses “symbols of symbols” (50, 254).

In this regard, written speech includes a number of levels or phases that are absent in oral speech. Thus, written speech includes a number of processes at the phonemic level - the search for individual sounds, their opposition, the coding of individual sounds into letters, the combination of individual sounds and letters into whole words. She's in a big mood to a greater extent than is the case in oral speech, includes in its composition the lexical level, which consists in the selection of words, in the search for suitable necessary verbal expressions, contrasting them with other “lexical alternatives” (options for the verbal designation of an object). In addition, written speech also includes conscious operations at the syntactic level, “which most often occurs automatically, unconsciously in oral speech, but which constitutes one of the essential links in written speech” (155, p. 272). In his writing activity, a person deals with the conscious construction of a phrase, which is mediated not only by existing speech skills, but also by the rules of grammar and syntax. The fact that written speech does not use non-verbal signs of oral speech (gestures, facial expressions, etc.), intonation is only partially “coded” in the corresponding written signs, and in written speech itself there are no external prosodic components (intonation, pauses), determines the essential features of its structure.

Thus, written speech is fundamentally different from oral speech in that it can only be carried out according to the rules of “explicit (explicit) grammar”, necessary to make the content of written speech understandable in the absence of gestures and intonations accompanying the speech utterance. The addressee’s lack of knowledge of the subject of speech also plays a significant role. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that those ellipses and grammatical incompleteness, which are possible and often justified in oral speech, become completely inapplicable in written speech (50, 155, 282, etc.).

Written monologue speech, in its linguistic form of expression, “is always complete, grammatically organized, detailed structures that almost do not use forms of direct speech” (155, p. 273). Therefore, the length of a phrase in written speech, as a rule, significantly exceeds the length of a phrase in spoken speech. In extended written speech, complex forms of control are used, for example, inclusion subordinate clauses, which are only rarely found in spoken language.

Thus, written speech is a special speech process, this speech is a monologue, conscious and voluntary, “contextual” in its content and selectively “linguistic” in the means of its implementation.

Written speech is a universal means of carrying out mental analytical and synthetic activity of a person. Including conscious operations with linguistic categories, it proceeds in a completely different, much more at a slow pace than oral speech. On the other hand, allowing repeated access to what has already been written, it also provides full intellectual control over ongoing operations. All this makes written speech a powerful tool for clarifying and refining the thinking process. Therefore, written speech is used not only to convey a ready-made message, but also to create it on the basis of clarification, “processing,” “polishing” of what is conveyed in speech mental content. Speech practice repeatedly confirms the fact that more accurate, clear and logically reasoned expression of thought (as the subject of speech) is greatly facilitated by exercises in expressing it in writing. The process of clarifying and clarifying a speech message, its “crystallization” is clearly manifested in this type of creative intellectual activity, such as drawing up a report, lecture, etc. Based on this, written speech as work on the method and form of expression is of great importance for the formation of thinking ( 155, p. 274).

Based on comprehensive psychological analysis written speech L. S. Tsvetkova (254, etc.) identifies a number of its distinctive features:

§ Written speech (WSR), in general, is much more arbitrary than oral. Already the sound form, which is automated in oral speech, requires dissection, analysis and synthesis when learning to write. The syntax of a phrase in written speech is as arbitrary as its phonetics.

§ PR is a conscious activity that is closely related to conscious intention. The signs of language and their use in written speech are acquired by the child consciously and intentionally, in contrast to the “unconscious” (insufficiently conscious) use and assimilation of them in oral speech.

§ Written speech is a kind of “algebra of speech, the most difficult and complex shape intentional and conscious speech activity."

There are also significant differences in the functions of written and oral speech (if we talk about the general functions of speech) (50, 155, 277, etc.).

§ Oral speech usually performs the function of colloquial speech in a conversation situation, and written speech is more business speech, scientific, etc., it serves to convey content to an absent interlocutor.

§ Compared to oral speech, writing as a means of communication is not completely independent; in relation to oral speech, it acts as an auxiliary means.

§ The functions of written speech, although very broad, are nevertheless narrower than the functions of oral speech. The main functions of written speech are to ensure the transmission of information over any distance, to ensure the possibility of consolidating the content of oral speech and information over time. These properties of written speech endlessly expand the limits of human society.

§1. WRITTEN SPEECH

Written speech is one of the forms of language existence, opposed to oral speech. This is a secondary, later in time form of the existence of language. For various forms of linguistic activity, both oral and written speech can be primary (compare folklore and fiction). If oral speech separated man from the animal world, then writing should be considered the greatest of all inventions created by mankind. Written speech not only revolutionized the methods of accumulating, transmitting and processing information, but it changed man himself, especially his ability to think abstractly.

The concept of written speech includes reading and writing as equal components. “Writing is a symbolic system for recording speech, which allows, with the help of graphic elements, to transmit information at a distance and consolidate it in time. Any writing system is characterized by a constant composition of characters" ( FOOTNOTE Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979. P.205)

Russian writing refers to alphabetic writing systems. The alphabet marked the transition to symbols of higher orders and determined progress in the development of abstract thinking, making it possible to make speech and thinking objects of knowledge. “Only writing allows one to go beyond the limited spatial and temporal framework of speech communication, as well as preserve the impact of speech even in the absence of one of the partners. This is how the historical dimension of public self-awareness arises" ( FOOTNOTE: Granovskaya P.M. Elements practical psychology L., 1984. P. 182)

Both oral and written forms of speech are a type of temporary connections of the second signaling system, but, unlike oral, written speech is formed only under conditions of purposeful learning, i.e. its mechanisms develop during the period of learning to read and write and are improved during all further education. As a result of reflex repetition, a dynamic stereotype of a word is formed in the unity of acoustic, optical and kinesthetic stimuli (L.S. Vygotsky, B.G. Ananyev). Mastering written language is the establishment of new connections between the audible and spoken word, the visible and written word, because The writing process is ensured by the coordinated work of four analyzers: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual and motor.

Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written.

Oral speech– this is spoken speech, it uses a system of phonetic and prosodic means of expression, it is created in the process of conversation. It is characterized by verbal improvisation and some language features: freedom in choosing vocabulary, use simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incompleteness of expression of thoughts.

The oral form comes in two varieties: colloquial speech and codified speech.

Spoken speech serves a language sphere characterized by: ease of communication; informality of relationships between speakers; unprepared speech; use of non-verbal means of communication (gestures and facial expressions); the fundamental possibility of changing communication “speaker – listener”.

Codified speech used in formal areas of communication (conferences, meetings, etc.). Usually it is prepared in advance (giving a lecture, reports) and is not always based on an extra-linguistic situation; it is characterized by moderate use of non-verbal means of communication.

Written speech- this is speech that is graphically fixed, pre-thought out and corrected, it is characterized by some linguistic features: the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, strict adherence to language norms,

Xlack of extra-linguistic elements. Written speech is usually directed towards visual perception.

Every written text is complex statement about reality.

To construct a written text, it is necessary to comply with the rules of reference and predication.

The design of predicativity and reference is associated with the actual division of the sentence, with the highlighting of the “topic” or “new” in the message.

Written and oral forms of speech have a different material basis: moving layers of air (sounds) in oral speech and paint (letter) in written speech. This difference is associated with the rich intonation capabilities of oral speech and the lack of them in written speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the place of logical stress, its strength, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, the presence or absence of pauses. Written language cannot convey all this. She has only punctuation marks and punctuation at her disposal.

In oral speech, the linguistic means of conveying meaning is intonation, and in written speech it is derivative. In oral speech there are no written means such as quotation marks or capital letters, which can create difficulties in listening to the text. Using written form means the possibility of rearranging sentences, replacing words, and consulting dictionaries and reference books.

The first two differences between the oral form unite it with written speech spoken aloud. The third difference characterizes speech produced orally. Oral speech is divided into spoken and non-spoken. Conversational is divided into scientific, journalistic, business, artistic, non-conversational - into public and non-public speech. Public speech is divided into mass and collective. This division coincides with the division into monologue and dialogic speech.