Rationalism is the Soviet avant-garde method (style, direction) in architecture, which was developed in the 1920s - early 1930s. It is characterized by laconic forms, rigor and emphasized functionalism. The ideologists of rationalism, in contrast to the constructivists, paid much attention to the psychological perception of architecture by man.
Rationalism (from Latin rationalis - reasonable, ratio - reason) sought to develop new architectural methods that meet modern social needs, aesthetic demands and the level of industrial and technological development.
The foundations of rationalism were laid back at the end of the 19th century (Louis Henry Sullivan, 1856-1924) in the USA, Hendrik Petrus Berlage (1856-1934) in the Netherlands (brick style), Adolph Loos in Austria, the master of the German Werkbund in Germany, O Perret in France). The rise of rationalism in the early 1920s was largely aided by theories promoted by a group rallied around the L "Esprit Nouveau" magazine, led by Le Corbusier in France, led by Walter Gropius, the school of architecture "Bauhaus" (Bauhaus - "House of construction") in Germany (functionalism). Development of rationalism covers mainly the 20-50s. Supporters of rationalism organized International congresses of modern architecture (1928-59), its urban planning ideas were recorded in the so-called The Athenian Charter (1933) The Charter pursued the goal of creating ideal architecture and urban planning - ideas that are equally applicable in Europe and America, Africa and Asia.The results are known: there was a desire for uniformity of decisions around the globe, national character and historical customs were not taken into account peoples of different countries and continents. General architectural concepts in the 50s led to the creation aniyu so-called. international (international) style (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) and many other architects). The reasons for the crisis of rationalism in the late 1950s were the well-known dogmatism of architectural thinking and social reformist utopianism inherent in its representatives.
Competitive project of the Bolshoi Synthetic Theater in Sverdlovsk, 1931. Architects G. and M. Barkhin. Capacity 4000-8000 seats
Competition project of the Bolshoi Synthetic Theater in Sverdlovsk, 1931. Archyt. M. Ginzburg
The architects of the ASNOVA association (Nikolai Aleksandrovich Ladovsky (1881 - 1941), Konstantin Stepanovich Melnikov, etc.) called themselves rationalists, who highlighted the psycho-physiological features of the perception of architectural form and sought to find rational principles in the model aspect of architecture.
The ideologists of rationalism, in contrast to the constructivists, paid much attention to the psychological perception of architecture by man.
Rationalism is known (and realized) much worse than contemporary constructivism, but this does not make this direction less interesting.
The creative leader of rationalism N. Ladovsky did not completely deny the achievements of the past, as the leaders of constructivism did. On the contrary, he called for studying the classical heritage and in no way being limited only to the utilitarian function of the projected building.
In addition, the main point in the creative program of rationalism was the concept of "space". N. Ladovsky wrote: "Architecture is an art that operates with space." He noted that an architecturally designed space (building) is always perceived in a special way by a person: the psychological characteristics of perception should also be taken into account during construction.
To educate the "younger generation" of architects, N. Ladovsky created the Obmas workshop (United Workshops) at VKHUTEMAS.
Obmas existed for only three years (1920-1923), however, it was here that the first steps were taken to create an innovative Soviet architecture. Here, the art of the architect was taught in a completely different way. So, a special discipline was introduced - "Space".
Ladovsky believed that an architect should think in volume - spatial composition, sketch not on paper, but in volume, and only then transfer the worked out composition to paper! The introduction of the layout design method helped to show imagination and develop new techniques and means of artistic expression.
At the turn of 1922-1923. a group of like-minded people of Ladovsky has already formed into a creative organization. The organization was named the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA) (registered on July 13, 1923).
The founders of the organization were: N. Ladovsky himself and his colleagues - N. V. Dokuchaev, V. Krinsky, A. Rukhlyadev, V. Balikhin. At different times, ASNOV included such outstanding artists as Lazar (El) Lissitzky and Konstantin Melnikov.
In 1928, ASNOV split. The reason was the insurmountable contradictions that arose between Ladovsky and his radical colleague, V. Balikhin, as well as the creation of the Association of Architects - Urbanists of the ARU by Ladovsky.
Modernism in architecture is represented by different trends that appeared at the beginning of the 20th century as opposed to romantic Modern... Note that there is a lot of confusion over the definitions of these two styles or trends.
Modern or modernism: how to figure it out
Modernism in the architecture of the USSR (Constructivism) Constructivism
Received recognition in the Soviet Union in the last century in the 1920s and early 1930s. He combined advanced technologies and techniques with the generally recognized goal of the state - the building of communism. Endowed with mechanistic and dynamic forms.
Abstract style or abstractionism
This direction comes into contact with the avant-garde and promotes the rejection of the depiction of real forms of things. Such architectural styles and their features as Cubism and Suprematism are its derivatives.
Replaces symmetry and statics with asymmetry and balance of masses.
Modernism in the architecture of the USSR (Abstractionism). J. Chernikhov. Composition No. 28 (1925-1933) Modernism in Dutch architecture: De Stijl
This style was formed as an art movement by the society of artists in the Dutch city of Leiden in 1917. Also called neoplasticism... The De Stijl movement was influenced by the paintings of the Cubists and the DaDa movement with their ideas of ideal geometric shapes. De Stijl's work, in turn, influenced the Bauhaus and International style. The architectural influence of this movement can be seen most in the Rietveld Schroeder House, which is the only building created exclusively using De Stijl principles - white and gray walls, black door frames and many elements painted in bright primary colors.
De Stijl style. House Rietveld Schroeder, Holland Modernism in German architecture: the Bauhaus
Bauhaus building, Dessau, Germany The style got its name thanks to the artistic association of the same name, founded in Germany by the German architect Walter Gropius. Despite its relative fragility (from 1919 to 1933), it had a huge impact on 20th century design, classic modern style, and the avant-garde.
One of the main goals of the Bauhaus was a combination of a wide range of arts- architecture, sculpture, painting with crafts and technology, where functionality comes first.
The minimalist appearance of buildings, orientation towards simplified geometric shapes, lack of decor are a sign of the revolutionary principles of the Bauhaus - beauty and simplicity.
Minimalism
The origins of minimalist architecture go back to Cubism, De Stijl and Bauhaus. In some ways, these movements were similar to each other.
Farnsworth House, 1951, Mies, Illinois, USA For example, the De Stijl movement favored simplicity and abstraction and reduced the decoration to its basic shape and color. They based their design philosophy on functionalism, straightness of planes and the elimination of decorative surface finishes, as exemplified in the home of Schroeder Rietveld.
On the other hand, the Bauhaus was founded as an art school in Germany with the goal of promoting mass production and combining crafts with technology. The Bauhaus shared De Stijl's principles of functionalism, purity and form reduction.
Just a few seconds on the video shows the essence of minimalism:
In addition to Bauhaus and De Stijl, minimalist architecture was influenced by traditional Japanese architecture, appreciating its simplicity.
This style exhibits certain characteristics of form, light, space and material along with techniques such as
- reduction,
- simplification and
- unification.
Minimalists consider these characteristics essence architecture.
Minimalism eliminates unimportant details, reducing and compacting the content of the project to the minimum necessary elements, parameters and tools, thus defining its shape.
Functionalism
An architectural style of the 20th century that brought buildings and structures into line with their functions. Born in Germany, at the Bauhaus school, and in the Netherlands. Although functionalism is not an exclusively modern concept, it is closely related to the modern style of architecture that took shape during the second quarter of the 20th century.
By Foto: Jonn Leffmann, CC BY 3.0, Link
Progressive construction techniques, the need for new types of buildings, changes in cultural and aesthetic ideals have influenced the popularity of this trend. The main slogan in architecture is the satisfaction of practical needs. The strongest influence of the direction was observed in Germany, Czechoslovakia, the USSR and the Netherlands.
Brutalism
Modernism in the architecture of India. Brutalism. Mill Owners' Association Building, Ahmedabad Modernism in architecture Brutalism represents from the 1950s to the mid-1970s. Brutalist buildings have repeating modular elements of functional areas that are clearly articulated and grouped into a coherent whole. Cast concrete surfaces are made to accentuate the underlying structural material with the texture of wood formwork used for casting molds. Building materials used in this style include bricks, steel, glass, and rough stone. It is in stark contrast to the exquisite and ornamented buildings built in the elite Beaux-Arts style.
As an illustration of the confusion between the Modern and Modernist currents, you can watch a short video (most likely based on English-language sources) in which the Modernist buildings are on a par with the Modern.
Art Deco
Art Deco, which came into fashion in the first third of the twentieth century, partly continued the tradition of Art Nouveau. At the same time, he was influenced by Cubism, American folk art and the design of the rapidly developing machine and aircraft construction at that time. This style is characterized by rounded corners, strict vertical lines, and "receding" shapes. It is distinguished from all furniture styles by the use of decorative elements in the form of zigzags, circles, triangles, patterns with oriental and African motives.
The Art Deco style emerged from various trends in art and design of the 1900s, such as Art Nouveau, the Vienna Secession, the German Designers' Union Werkbund, Russian Constructivism and the Dutch movement "De Stijl", as well as modernist achievements in painting such as abstract art and cubism. The term "Art Deco" comes from the name Exposition Internationale des Art Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes - the International Exhibition of Contemporary and Decorative Arts and Crafts in 1925 in Paris, which fully presented the achievements of the decorative and applied arts of that time. The term itself arose even later - in 1966, during the revival of an exhibition at the Parisian Musee des Arts Decoratifs (Museum of Decorative Arts).
Art Deco is considered to be the last stage in the development of Art Nouveau. By its nature, Art Deco is a streamlined, laconic, geometric style. As an independent style, Art Deco took shape in the period between the first and second world wars, and reached its heyday in the 1920s and 30s. At this time, Art Deco furniture was the basis of most private interiors, due to its availability for mass production. Later, the designers changed the very ideology of the style, and Art Deco was reborn as the famous "star style" of Hollywood in the 30-40s. In addition to elegant simplicity and laconicism, Art Deco furniture began to appreciate the quality of the finish, the materials from which it was made and the design compliance with the latest technical achievements. From that moment on, the Art Deco style became synonymous with luxury and wealth. It was with the advent of "star style" that consumers learned to understand and appreciate eclecticism. Indeed, in fact, Art Deco is a cocktail in which motifs of modernity, geometry of cubism, ethnic motives, automotive and aviation design are mixed.
Art Deco combined neoclassicism and streamliness, gracefulness and playfulness, monumentality and elegance at the same time. The representatives of this style ignored the mass industrial production of goods, they stood for the exclusive manufacture of items. In the manufacture of products, valuable and expensive materials were used - snake skin, ivory, bronze, crystals, exotic wood. Characterized by emphatically geometric, rounded, "flowing" facades, wooden furniture with chrome handles and other details, glass tabletops. Art Deco uses solid maple, ash, rosewood, Madronia wood. The Art Deco style has many sources: Cubist drawings, American Indian art, modern automotive and aviation design. Miami Beach's colorful Deco district is one of the finest contemporary examples of this style.
Primary colors: red, blue, brown, beige, gold, white - all colors are very rich and deep. The combination of dark and light coatings (fabric, varnish) was also very popular.
Materials used: fabrics, glass, bronze, ceramics, carpets in cubic patterns. Exotic woods, various types of leather, marble, glass and chrome plating are also appropriate for all types of home equipment. Metal is extremely widely used in combination with glass.
The crisis of modernity came quite quickly and already at the end of the first decade of the century it began to be supplanted by a new style: constructivism. The new movement in European architecture and art industry was based on the aesthetics of purposefulness, which implied rational, strictly utilitarian forms, cleared of the decorative romance of Art Nouveau. The official date of birth of constructivism is considered to be the beginning of the twentieth century. Its development is called a natural reaction to sophisticated floral, that is, plant motifs inherent in Art Nouveau, which rather quickly tired the imagination of contemporaries and aroused the desire to search for something new.
In architecture, new principles of urban planning were formulated: the social orientation of the dwelling, its functional compliance with the most necessary needs of the inhabitants, in this connection, small-sized "minimal apartments" are being designed. This was accompanied by the introduction of new structures and materials into housing construction: monolithic concrete, metal frame, prefabricated concrete structures. A kind of norms of "minimalized well-being" were established, which were considered the most suitable for a worker's dwelling and were implanted as a kind of socio-architectural ideal. The era of rationalism and utilitarianism brought simplicity, harmony and integrity to the art of interior decoration of the house.
"Simplicity is not simple", "less is more" - these aphorisms of Mies van der Rohe, a talented architect of the 20th century, became the essence of the interior not only of the 20-30s, but of the entire century. Nothing extra "catches" the eye, everything is functional, thought out, weighed. The adjusted proportions make the avant-garde architecture of that time related to the classical architecture of antiquity. Simple and clear shapes, floor-to-ceiling windows, metal and concrete, houses like ships sailing into the future.
The internal space of the houses was freed from partitions, the old ideas about the relationship of the internal premises of the house were denied. The division into zones was carried out in an abstract way, most often due to light mobile partitions, separate closed rooms, corridors - all this was considered hopelessly outdated. Unlike the interiors of the previous Art Nouveau era, which resemble a cozy sink, the houses of constructivists were called into the future of high technology, machine production and futuristic metropolises. The design schools created at that time were taught to create not individual, albeit ingenious things, but to construct the environment as a whole, creating the whole world of objects around a person. In this case, the main thing was not the appearance, but the functionality of the objects. The furniture was viewed as a "seating apparatus" and was dominated by rectangular planes and clear structures.
The constructivism style is characterized by the predominance of the functional-constructive idea over the artistic and social over the personal. Constructivism presupposes the most functional approach to interior design, abolishes decor and offers to operate with simple geometric shapes according to the "necessary and sufficient" principle. It is to this style that we owe the idea of small-sized housing. The main features of the style: rationalism, functionality, open frame, pure colors in contrasting combination with black and white, simple geometric shapes. The interior design is characterized by thoughtful functional solutions and strict adherence to their requirements, compact volumes with a clearly defined frame, technical clarity of forms.
Constructivism is characterized by the aesthetics of expediency, the rationality of strictly utilitarian forms, cleared of the romantic decorativeism of modernity. All things designed by constructivists - furniture and interiors in general - were distinguished by maximum functionality and minimal decor. Ornament was completely absent in them, color accents were allowed - shine of metal, noble black, pure white and rich simple colors - red, yellow, blue. These colors were considered a reflection of the philosophical and spiritual values of the era.
After the end of the First World War, constructivism in furniture gains an important position, relying on the authority of architects, whose innovative structures sometimes served as their interiors to demonstrate furniture experiments. Compared to previous styles, such as Baroque and Empire style, constructivism stands out for the lack of stucco decoration. The constructivism style in the interior is quite laconic and clear, but not devoid of unpredictability and bright artistic solutions. Constructivist artists create innovative fabrics, clothing, and tableware, in which clear and simple color spots combined with clear prickly lines and catchy font created poster things characteristic of the era.
Modernism. The main principles of modernism are design and function. "Home is a machine for living" - the famous saying of the architect Le Corbusier characterizes this style very accurately. The founders of modernism worked in different directions: they created skyscrapers or, for example, developed bionic architecture as close as possible to nature. In modern design, they often refer to the style of a particular architect of that period than to, in fact, modernism.
Postmodernism. The style arose as a reaction to modernism in the late 60s of the XX century. It develops in architecture and art as opposed to modernist radicalism. Postmodernists use a fusion of different styles of the past, for example, Classicism and Baroque, often applying them with an ironic effect. The specificity of the style is hyperbole as a tool for creating a vivid theatrical image of the environment.
Characteristic features: complex curvilinear shapes and volumes, imitating a dynamic living structure. The style allows for a chaotic and illogical pile-up of elements, sudden breaks, illusory instability, sloping walls, furniture made of unexpected materials. Now this style is often used. The only condition for its perception is that a person who uses a building designed in this style should easily get used to optical nonsense.
Deconstructivism. As the name suggests, this style, in contrast to constructivism, proclaims complete freedom from rational construction. Reverse perspective, "unstable" or "fluid" volumes, inclined walls, beveled window openings or located in a bizarre disorder. The style has something in common with postmodernism. Good for short-term effective exposure, but unsuitable for use in places of long-term stay. According to psychologists, unexpected and sometimes absurd techniques characteristic of this style cause a feeling of subconscious anxiety.
Questions and tasks:
1. Explain what were the main differences between realism and modernism.
Modernism is a direction in art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, characterized by a break with the previous historical experience of artistic creation, the desire to establish new, non-traditional principles in art, the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as the convention (schematization, abstraction) of style.
Realism is a trend in art that aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features.
The main differences between modernism and realism:
1. Modernism is a young phenomenon, and realism was known even in ancient times.
2. Modernism has many ramifications, but realism does not.
3. Modernism embellishes the world, gives it metaphor, and realism tells about what it really is.
2. What are the reasons for the emergence of modernism?
The main reason for the emergence of modernism was the feeling of a crisis and disintegration of the surrounding world among the European intelligentsia, a presentiment of imminent changes and even the end of the existing order of things. In the works of a number of European scholars, rational and optimistic ideas about European history, belief in endless progress and the growing well-being of mankind were debunked. Instead, the ideas of a cultural and historical cycle, an inevitable change of cultures, were put forward. These tendencies also influenced the artistic culture, in which a departure from the traditions and ideals of the previous art began, as well as the search for new artistic forms and means. All these trends resulted in the emergence of modernism.
3. Describe two or three trends in the European literature of the post-war decades. How do you think the writers' own life experience influenced their ideological and artistic positions? Give examples.
Literature of the Lost Generation.
Writers of the “lost generation” occupied a prominent place in post-war literature: the German E. M. Remarque, the American E. Hemingway, the Englishman R. Aldington, and others. They participated in the war and could not forget what they saw and experienced. Showing the life of their heroes in the war, they protested against the terrible extermination of people by their routine. At the same time, they questioned what the war was fought for.
Literature on the struggle for social and national liberation.
Many figures of European culture saw in the turbulent events of the first decades of the XX century. implementation of the most important social and political ideas. They were attracted by the active struggle of people against inequality and injustice, for social and national liberation. Among them were the French writers A. Barbusse and R. Rollan, the German G. Mann, the American T. Dreiser and others. Their heroes rejected the values of bourgeois society. Some of them fought against this society, like the heroes of A. Barbusse's novel "Fire", while others, like Clyde Griffith from "American Tragedy" by T. Dreiser, tried to break through in it at any cost and died without reaching their goal.
4. * Explain the meaning of the concept of "dystopia" (remember what works were called utopias). What, in your opinion, was the significance of the works written in this genre in the 1920s and 1930s?
Dystopia is a genre variety in fiction that describes a state in which negative development trends have prevailed (in some cases, not a separate state is described, but the world as a whole). Dystopia is the complete opposite of utopia.
Utopia is a genre of fiction, close to science fiction, describing a model of an ideal, from the point of view of the author, society. Unlike dystopia, it is characterized by the author's belief in the impeccability of the model. Examples of utopias - T. More "Utopia", T. Campanella "City of the Sun" and others.
The significance of the works written in the genre of dystopia in the 20s - 30s of the XX century (E. Zamyatin “We”, J. Orwell “1984” and others) was in the fact that they traced criticism of the current system through metaphors and images. pressing and exciting problems of Western society, and the possible course of history was revealed.
Thus, the novel "War with the Salamanders" by the Czech writer K. Chapek was a vivid example of artistic prophecy. It tells a fantastic story about how some amphibious creatures, having come into contact with people, gradually seize more and more "living space", and then, with the help of weapons received from people, they start a war aimed at the destruction of humanity. An entertaining story with elements of a brilliant parody of the then society suddenly became scary because of its similarity to reality. This impression is similar in content to what could be read in the press of those years. K. Chapek died in 1938, shortly before the start of the Second World War, in which much of what he had predicted came true.
5. Show what was the innovation of the Mexican school of monumental painting.
One of the most striking manifestations of innovation in realistic art was the Mexican school of monumental painting, created by the artists D. Rivera, X. K. Orozco, D. A. Siqueiros and others.
The innovation of the Mexican school of monumental painting was to depict heroic events of the past on the walls and facades. This is how monumental paintings appeared on the buildings - frescoes reflecting the events of history and modernity. The artists exposed the war, the inhuman aspects of bourgeois society, and fascism. Their works combined emotionality, journalism and artistic expressiveness. The themes, images, symbolism of the frescoes were deeply national, the masters of this school continued the traditions of the art of the Indians of Mexico. At the same time, they expressed the universal human feelings of compassion and anger, shock and an impulse to freedom inherent in all people. The monumental painting technique invented by the artists was also new for the art of that time.
6. Look at the illustration on p. 106 and explain how the artist expressed his position.
The page contains a fragment of the painting "Portrait of the Bourgeoisie" by D. Siqueiros. It clearly shows the political views of the author, who was a supporter of leftist ideas. The painting depicts the bourgeoisie, which destroys everything in its path. Thus, D. Siqueiros showed criticism of the existing system.
7. * Compare the works of modernity and rationalism (constructivism). Name the features of each of the styles.
Modern is an artistic trend in art, most widespread in the last decade of the 19th - early 20th century (before the start of the First World War). Its distinctive features are the rejection of straight lines and angles in favor of more natural, "natural" lines, interest in new technologies (for example, in architecture).
In rationalism and constructivism, on the contrary, simplicity, conformity of forms and internal planning of the building to its purpose were put in the first place. A prominent representative of European rationalism was the French architect Charles E. Le Corbusier (1887-1965). It was he who formulated the most laconic manifesto of the new trend: "A house is a machine for living."
8. Explain why the culture of the 20s - 30s of the XX century. called mass.
Because the culture began to be aimed at the mass consumer. Art became available not only to the elite, but also to the common man (especially cinema), which led to its wide distribution. The positive thing about popular culture was that works of art turned out to be more accessible to different strata and groups of the population, and became a part of public life. The costs, according to art connoisseurs, consisted in replacing unique, high samples with serial, ordinary art products.
9. * Our research. Read an excerpt from Hollywood's "Manufacturing Code". Highlight the main ideas in it. * How would you formulate the rules ("recipes") by which modern films are created in the USA and other countries? Refer to the experience of Russian cinematography.
The main idea of the "Production Code" of Hollywood is that cinema should depict only the bright sides of a person's life and foster the feeling that the US way of life is the only and best for any person.
Today, Hollywood still follows this idea, in Hollywood films most of them end with a "happy end". If this is a film about a war, that it is the American army that wins, etc. I would like to note that directors in Russian cinema are increasingly turning to Hollywood recipes, creating films for a mass audience and forgetting about their own peculiarities of making films.
MODERNISM (Latin modernus - "modern") is a direction in the culture of the 20th century, characterized by a break with past historical experience, the desire to establish new non-traditional principles in art, the renewal of artistic forms, as well as convention (schematization, abstraction) of style. The term "modernism" is widespread only in domestic culture, in Western sources it is the term "modern". Since in Russian aesthetics "modern" means an artistic style that precedes modernism, it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.
In architecture, the expression "modernism" is often used synonymously with the term "modern architecture", but the latter term is still broader. Modernism in architecture encompasses the work of the pioneers of modern architecture and their followers from the early 1920s to the 70s-80s (in Europe), when new trends emerged in architecture.
As a result of social development, the growing needs of people, aggravated by the great destruction of the Second World War, there was an acute shortage of architectural buildings. The consequence of this was a large-scale construction focused on super-profit for customers.
For these projects, appropriate technologies of urban planning, unified prefabricated elements were developed, assuming a monotonous building of the environment. The structure and form of the building strive to be beautiful in themselves and do not need additional decoration - simply, cheaply, and democratically.
The principles of modernism are the use of the most modern materials (reinforced concrete structures, glass), a rational approach to the solution of structures and interior spaces, the absence of decoration tendencies, a fundamental rejection of historical reminiscences in the appearance of buildings, their "international" character.
Modernism in architecture is associated with such concepts (movements) as avant-garde, purism, functionalism, constructivism, "new movement", international style, technicalism, minimalism.
The main representatives of modernism in architecture, who play the role of pioneers, are Frank Lloyd Wright, Walter Gropius, Richard Neutra, Ludwig Mies van Der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Alvar Aalto, Oscar Niemeyer and some others.
In art, modernism manifests itself as a rebellion against tradition and canons. The desire to find a connection with life, to solve big social problems gave rise to painful contradictions in their work of artists. Elements of realism, sometimes in a hidden, sometimes in a more explicit form, made their way in their art through deformed methods of conveying reality
The modernist model was one of the leading in Western civilization in the first half of the 20th century; in the second half of the century, it was subjected to extensive criticism. It should be noted that the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 20th century was absolutely on a par with Europe in the field of design. In 1932, all our art workshops were closed, Stalinist classicism was declared.
Abstractionism(from the Latin abstractus - distant, abstract) is a very broad trend in the art of the 20th century, which arose in the early 1910s in several European countries. Abstractionism is characterized by the use of exclusively formal elements to display reality, where imitation or accurate display of reality was not an end in itself.
The founders of abstract art are the Russian artists Wassily Kandinsky and Kazimir Malevich, the Dutchman Pete Mondrian, the Frenchman Robert Delaunay and the Czech Frantisek Kupka. Their drawing method was based on the desire for "harmonization", the creation of certain color combinations and geometric shapes in order to evoke various associations in the beholder.
In abstractionism, two clear directions can be distinguished: geometric abstraction, based mainly on clearly delineated configurations (Malevich, Mondrian), and lyrical abstraction, in which the composition is organized from freely flowing forms (Kandinsky). Also in abstractionism there are several large independent trends.
Cubism- the avant-garde trend in the visual arts, which originated at the beginning of the 20th century and is characterized by the use of emphatically conventional forms of geometric shapes, the desire to "split" real objects into stereometric primitives.
Rayonism (Rayonism)- the direction in abstract art of the 1910s, based on the displacement of light spectra and light transmission. The idea of the emergence of forms from the "intersection of the reflected rays of various objects" is characteristic, since a person actually perceives not the object itself, but "the sum of the rays coming from the light source, reflected from the object."
Neoplasticism- designation of the direction of abstract art that existed in the years 1917-1928. in Holland and united artists grouped around the magazine "De Stijl" ("Style"). Characterized by clear rectangular shapes in architecture and abstract painting in the arrangement of large rectangular planes painted in the primary colors of the spectrum.
Orphism- a trend in French painting of the 1910s. Orphist artists strove to express the dynamics of movement and musicality of rhythms with the help of "regularities" of the interpenetration of the basic colors of the spectrum and the intersection of curved surfaces.
Suprematism- a direction in avant-garde art, founded in the 1910s. Malevich. It was expressed in combinations of multi-colored planes of the simplest geometric outlines. The combination of multi-colored geometric shapes forms balanced asymmetric Suprematist compositions permeated with internal movement.
Tashism- current in Western European abstractionism of the 1950s-60s, which was most widespread in the United States. It is painting with spots that do not recreate images of reality, but express the artist's unconscious activity. Strokes, lines and spots in Tashism are applied to the canvas with quick movements of the hand without a premeditated plan.
Abstract expressionism- the movement of artists who paint quickly and on large canvases, using non-geometric strokes, large brushes, sometimes dripping paint onto the canvas, to fully reveal emotions. The expressive painting method here often has the same meaning as the painting itself.
Constructivism- the Soviet avant-garde method (direction) in the visual arts, architecture, photography and arts and crafts, which was developed in 1920 - the first half of the 1930s.
It is characterized by severity, geometrism, laconic forms and monolithic appearance.
Supporters of K., putting forward the task of designing an environment that actively guides life processes, sought to comprehend the form-building capabilities of new technology, its logical, expedient designs, as well as the aesthetic capabilities of materials such as metal, glass, and wood. Constructivists strove to oppose ostentatious luxury to the simplicity and emphasized utilitarianism of new object forms, in which they saw the reification of democracy and new relations between people.
In architecture, the principles of K. were formulated in the theoretical speeches of A.A. Vesnin and M. Ya. Ginzburg; practically they were first embodied in the creation of the brothers A.A., V.A. and L.A. Vesnin's project of the Palace of Labor for Moscow (1923) with its clear, rational plan and the structural basis of the building revealed in the external appearance (reinforced concrete frame). The constructivists have developed the so-called. a functional design method based on a scientific analysis of the features of the functioning of buildings, structures, urban planning complexes.
Aesthetics K. in many ways contributed to the formation of artistic design. On the basis of the developments of constructivists (A.M. Rodchenko, A.M. Ghana, etc.), new types of dishes, fittings, and furniture designed for mass production were created. Artists developed designs for fabrics (V.F.Stepanova, L.S.Popova) and clothing models (V.F.Stepanova, V.E. Tatlin).
K. played a significant role in the development of poster graphics (photomontages by the Stenberg brothers, G.G. Klutsis, A.M. Rodchenko) and the design of the book (using the expressive capabilities of the font and other typesetting elements in the works of A.M. Gan, L.M. Lissitzky and others). In the theater, the constructivists replaced the subordinate tasks of stage action with "machines" for the work of the actors (the works of LS Popova, AA Vesnin and others on the productions of VE Meyerhold, A.Ya. Tairov).
Functionalism- a trend in the architecture of the XX century, requiring strict compliance of buildings and structures with the production and household processes (functions) taking place in them. It originated in Germany (Bauhaus school) and the Netherlands (Jacobs Johannes Aud). Using the achievements of construction technology, functionalism gave reasonable methods and norms for the planning of residential complexes (standard sections and apartments, "line" development of quarters with the ends of buildings towards the street).
Le Corbusier deduced five constitutive features of functionalism, from which, however, some offshoots could deviate:
ü Use of clean geometric shapes, usually rectangular.
ü Use of large undivided planes of the same material, as a rule, monolithic and prefabricated reinforced concrete, glass, less often - brick.
ü Hence the predominant color scheme - gray (the color of unplastered concrete), yellow (Le Corbusier's favorite color) and white.
ü Lack of ornamentation and protruding parts devoid of functional purpose.
ü Flat, if possible, operated roofs. This idea of Le Corbusier was often abandoned by "northern" functionalists who built buildings that could withstand difficult weather conditions (see, for example, the Central Hospital of North Karelia).
ü Industrial and partially residential and public buildings are characterized by the arrangement of windows on the facade in the form of continuous horizontal stripes (the so-called "strip glazing").
ü Extensive use of the image of a "house on legs", which consists in fully or partially clearing the lower floors from the walls and using the space under the building for public functions.
Concise philosophy of style - "form is determined by function" (Adolph Loes). In the field of residential architecture, it is embodied in the famous postulate of Le Corbusier: "A house is a machine for living."
Art Deco, also art deco (French art déco, literally "decorative art", from the name of the Paris exhibition in 1925, French Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, Russian International Exhibition of Contemporary Decorative and Industrial Arts) - an influential trend in the visual arts and decorative art of the first half of the 20th century, which first appeared in France in the 1920s, and then became popular in the 1930s-1940s on an international scale, manifested mainly in architecture, fashion, painting, and ceased to be relevant in the period after World War II.
It is an eclectic style that is a synthesis of modernism and neoclassicism. The Art Deco style also has significant influences from art movements such as Cubism, Constructivism, and Futurism.
Distinctive features are strict regularity, bold geometric shapes, ethnic geometric patterns, richness of colors, lavish ornaments, luxury, chic, expensive, modern materials (ivory, crocodile skin, aluminum, rare woods, silver). In the USA, the Netherlands, France and some other countries, Art Deco has gradually evolved towards functionalism.
Surrealism ( fr . surréalisme - superrealism) is a trend in art that took shape by the early 1920s in France. Differs in the use of illusions and paradoxical combinations of forms.
In 1917, Guillaume Apollinaire named one of his plays under the title "surreal drama". Salvador Dali, Max Ernst and Rene Magritte are some of the greatest exponents of surrealism in painting. Luis Bunuel, Jean Cocteau, Jan Schwankmeier, Alejandro Jodorowski and David Lynch are considered the most prominent representatives of surrealism in cinema. Surrealism in photography was recognized through the pioneering work of Philip Halsman.
Surrealism, a modernist (modernism) trend in literature, art and cinema, originated in France in the 1920s. and had a great influence on Western culture. Surrealism is characterized by an addiction to everything bizarre, irrational, not meeting generally accepted standards. The movement itself was heterogeneous, but its main goal was to liberate the creative forces of the subconscious and their supremacy over reason. To a certain extent, the predecessors of the Surrealists were the Dadaists (Dadaism).
The theorist and founder S. André Breton argued that this direction should resolve the contradiction between dream and reality and create some kind of absolute reality, superreality. Despite all Breton's attempts to rally the Surrealists, they lacked unanimity: they constantly argued, spoke out with mutual accusations and expelled dissent from their ranks.
Surrealism is based on Freud's theory of the subconscious and his method of "free association" for the transition from consciousness to subconsciousness. However, the forms of expression of these ideas were very different among the surrealists. For example, Dali, with scrupulous accuracy, "plausibility", wrote out every detail in his illogical, similar to nightmares, paintings, exacerbating the impression of hallucination or delirium, while Max Ernst worked on canvases as if automatically, "turning off" his mind, preferring arbitrary images, often turning into abstraction. Jean Miraud, nevertheless, differed from other surrealist painters in the variety and cheerfulness of his canvases.
In the period between the two world wars, Surrealism became the most widespread, albeit most controversial, trend. His followers appeared not only in Europe, but also in the United States, where many writers and artists emigrated during the war. Distinguished by its breadth of approach and richness of forms, Surrealism facilitated the perception of cubism and abstract art, and its methods and techniques influenced the work of writers and artists around the world.
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