All about Indian castes. Indian castes

Since childhood, we have been taught that there is nothing worse than caste society. But oddly enough, castes have survived to this day, as evidenced, for example, by India. What do we actually know about how the caste system functions?

Every society consists of certain basic units that form it. So, in relation to Antiquity, such a unit can be considered a polis, modern to the West - capital (or a social individual owning it), for Islamic civilization - a tribe, Japanese - a clan, etc. For India, from ancient times to the present day, caste has been and remains such a basic element.

The caste system for India is not at all a dense archaic or “relic of the Middle Ages” as we have been taught for a long time. The Indian caste system is part of the complex organization of society, a historically established diverse and multifaceted phenomenon.

One can try to describe castes through a number of characteristics. However, there will still be exceptions. Indian caste differentiation is a system of social stratification of isolated social groups, united by the common origin and legal status of their members. They are built according to the principles:

1) common religion;
2) general professional specialization (usually hereditary);
3) marriages only between “our own”;
4) nutritional characteristics.

In India, there are not 4 (as many of us still think), but about 3 thousand castes and they can be called differently in different parts of the country, and people of the same profession can belong to different castes in different states. What are sometimes mistakenly considered Indian “castes” are not castes at all, but varnas (“chaturvarnya” in Sanskrit) - social strata of the ancient social system.

Varna brahmins (brahmins) are priests, doctors, teachers. Kshatriyas (rajanyas) - warriors and civil leaders. Vaishyas are farmers and traders. Shudras are servants and landless peasant laborers.

Each varna had its own color: Brahmins - white, Kshatriyas - red, Vaishayas - yellow, Shudras - black (once every Hindu wore a special cord in the color of his varna).

Varnas, in turn, are theoretically divided into castes. But in a very complex and intricate way. An obvious direct connection is not always visible to a person with a European mentality. The word “caste” itself comes from the Portuguese casta: birthright, clan, class. In Hindi, this term is identical to “jati”.

The infamous "untouchables" are not one particular caste. IN Ancient India everyone who was not included in the four varnas was automatically classified as “marginal”, they were avoided in every possible way, they were not allowed to settle in villages and cities, etc. As a result of this position, the “untouchables” had to take on the most “non-prestigious”, dirty and low-paid work and they formed their own separate social and professional groups - essentially, their own castes.

There are several such castes of “untouchables” and, as a rule, they are associated either with dirty work, or with the killing of living beings or death (so all butchers, hunters, fishermen, tanners, garbage men, sewer men, laundresses, cemetery and morgue workers, etc. must be “untouchable”).

At the same time, it would be wrong to believe that every “untouchable” is necessarily someone like a homeless person or a “lowlife.” In India, even before it gained independence and the adoption of a number of legislative measures to protect lower castes from discrimination, there were “untouchables” who reached a very high social status and deserve universal respect. Like, for example, the outstanding Indian politician, public figure, human rights activist and author of the Indian Constitution - Dr. Bhimaro Ramji Ambedkar, who received a law degree in England.

One of the many monuments to Bhimaro Ambedkar in India

The “untouchables” have several names: mleccha - “stranger”, “foreigner” (that is, formally all non-Hindus, including foreign tourists, can be classified as them), harijan - “child of God” (a term specifically introduced by Mahatma Gandhi), pariahs - “rejected”, “expelled”. And the most commonly used modern name for “untouchables” is Dalits.

Legally, castes in India were recorded in the Laws of Manu, compiled from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The varna system traditionally developed in a much more ancient period (there is no exact dating).

As mentioned above, castes in modern India still cannot be considered simply an anachronism. On the contrary, all of them are now carefully counted and listed in a special annex to the current Indian Constitution (Table of Castes).

In addition, after each population census, changes are made to this table (usually additions). The point is not that some new castes appear, but that they are recorded in accordance with the data provided about themselves by census participants. Only discrimination on the basis of caste is prohibited. What is written in Article No. 15 of the Indian Constitution.

Indian society is very colorful and heterogeneous in its structure; In addition to division into castes, there are several other differentiations in it. There are both caste and non-caste Indians. For example, adivasis (descendants of the main indigenous black population of India before its conquest by the Aryans), with rare exceptions, do not have their own castes. In addition, for some misdemeanors and crimes a person can be expelled from his caste. And there are quite a lot of non-caste Indians, as evidenced by the census results.

Castes exist not only in India. A similar public institution takes place in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bali and Tibet. By the way, Tibetan castes do not correlate with Indian castes at all - the structures of these societies were formed completely separately from each other. It is curious that in Northern India (the states of Himachal, Uttar Pradesh and Kashmir) the caste system is not of Indian origin, but of Tibetan origin.

Historically, when the overwhelming majority of the Indian population professed Hinduism - all Hindus belonged to some caste, the only exceptions were pariahs expelled from castes and the indigenous non-Aryan peoples of India. Then other religions (Buddhism, Jainism) began to spread in India. As the country was subjected to invasions by various conquerors, representatives of other religions and peoples began to adopt from the Hindus their system of varnas and professional caste-jatis. Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists and Christians in India also have their own castes, but they are somehow different from the Hindu castes.

What about Indian Muslims? After all, the Koran initially proclaimed the equality of all Muslims. A natural question. Despite the fact that British India was divided into two parts in 1947: “Islamic” (Pakistan) and “Hindu” (India proper), today Muslims (approximately 14% of all Indian citizens) in absolute terms live in India more than in Pakistan, where Islam is the state religion.

However, the caste system is inherent in India and Muslim society. However, caste differences among Indian Muslims are not as strong as among Hindus. They have virtually no “untouchables.” Between Muslim castes there are no such impenetrable barriers as among Hindus - transition from one caste to another or marriages between their representatives is allowed.

The caste system was established among Indian Muslims relatively late - during the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th-16th centuries. The Muslim caste is usually referred to as biradari ("brotherhood") or biyahdari. Their occurrence is often attributed by Muslim theologians to the influence of Hindus with their caste system (supporters of “pure Islam” see this, of course, as the insidious machinations of pagans).

In India, as in many Islamic countries, Muslims also have their nobility and common people. The former are called sharifs or ashraf (“noble”), the latter are called ajlaf (“low”). Currently, about 10% of Muslims living in the territory of the Republic of India belong to the Ashraf. They usually trace their ancestry to those external conquerors (Arabs, Turks, Pashtuns, Persians, etc.) who invaded Hindustan and settled for many centuries.

For the most part, Indian Muslims are descendants of the same Hindus who, for one reason or another, converted to a new faith. Forced conversion to Islam in medieval India was the exception rather than the rule. Typically, the local population was subjected to a slow Islamization, during which elements of foreign faith were unobtrusively incorporated into local cosmology and ritual practice, gradually displacing and replacing Hinduism. It was an implicit and sluggish social process. During it, people maintained and protected the closure of their circles. This explains the persistence of caste psychology and customs among large sections of Indian Muslim society. Thus, even after the final conversion to Islam, marriages continued to be concluded only with representatives of their own castes.

Even more curiously, even many Europeans were included in the Indian caste system. Thus, those Christian missionary preachers who preached to high-born Brahmins eventually found themselves in the “Christian Brahmin” caste, and those who, for example, carried the Word of God to the “untouchable” fishermen, became Christian “untouchables”.

Often it is impossible to determine exactly which caste an Indian belongs to just by his appearance, behavior and occupation. It happens that a kshatriya works as a waiter, and a brahmin trades and removes garbage from a shop - and they don’t particularly have a complex about these reasons, but a sudra behaves like a born aristocrat. And even if an Indian says exactly what caste he is from (although such a question is considered tactless), this will give a foreigner little to understand how society is structured in such an outlandish and peculiar country as India.

The Republic of India declares itself a “democratic” state and, in addition to prohibiting caste discrimination, has introduced certain benefits for representatives of lower castes. For example, they have adopted special quotas for their admission to higher educational institutions, as well as to positions in state and municipal bodies.

The problem of discrimination against people from lower castes and Dalits, however, is quite serious. The caste structure is still fundamental basis lives of hundreds of millions of Indians. Outside of large cities in India, caste psychology and all the conventions and taboos arising from it are firmly preserved.

upd: For some reason unknown to me, some readers started swearing and mutual insults in the comments to this post. I do not like it. Therefore, I decided to block comments on this post.

Caste is the original civilizational model,
built on its own conscious principles.
L. Dumont “Homo Hierarchicus”

The social structure of the modern Indian state is in many ways unique, primarily due to the fact that it is still, like several thousand years ago, based on the existence caste system, which is one of its main components.

The word “caste” itself appeared later than the social stratification of ancient Indian society began. Initially the term "varna" was used. The word "varna" Indian origin and means color, manner, essence. In the later laws of Manu, instead of the word “varna”, the word “jati” was sometimes used, meaning birth, gender, position. Subsequently, in the process of economic and social development, each varna was divided into a large number of castes; in modern India there are thousands of them. Contrary to popular belief, the caste system in India has not been abolished, but still exists; Only discrimination on the basis of caste is abolished by law.

Varna

In ancient India there were four main varnas (chaturvarnya), or classes. The highest varna - brahmans - are priests, clergy; their duties included studying sacred texts, teaching people and performing religious rituals, since they were the ones who were considered to have the proper holiness and purity.

The next varna is the kshatriyas; these are warriors and rulers who had the necessary qualities (for example, courage and strength) to govern and protect the state.

They are followed by Vaishyas (merchants and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers). It tells about the attitude towards the last, fourth varna ancient legend about the creation of the world, which says that at first three varnas were created by God - brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas, and later the people (praja) and cattle were born.

The first three varnas were considered the highest, and their representatives were “twice-born”. The physical, “first” birth was only a door to this earthly world, however, for internal growth and spiritual development, a person had to be born a second time - anew. This meant that representatives of privileged varnas underwent a special rite - initiation (upanayana), after which they became full members of society and could learn the profession that they inherited from representatives of their clan. During the ritual, a cord of a certain color and material, prescribed in accordance with the tradition of this varna, was placed around the neck of a representative of a given varna.

It was believed that all varnas were created from the body of the first man - Purusha: brahmanas - from his mouth (the color of this varna is white), kshatriyas - from his hands (the color is red), vaishyas - from the thighs (the color of varna is yellow), shudras - from his feet (black color).

The “pragmatism” of such a class division lay in the fact that initially, as is assumed, a person’s assignment to a certain varna occurred as a result of his natural inclinations and inclinations. For example, a brahmana became one who could think with his head (therefore the symbol is the mouth of Purusha), who himself had the ability to learn and could teach others. A Kshatriya is a person with a warlike nature, more inclined to work with his hands (that is, to fight, therefore the symbol is the hands of Purusha), etc.

Shudras were the lowest varna, they could not participate in religious rituals and study the sacred texts of Hinduism (Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmins and Aranyakas), they often did not have their own household, and they were engaged in the most difficult types of labor. Their duty was unconditional obedience to the representatives of the higher varnas. The Shudras remained “once-born,” that is, they did not have the privilege of rebirth to a new, spiritual life (probably because their level of consciousness was not ready for this).

Varnas were absolutely autonomous, marriages could only take place within a varna, the mixing of varnas, according to the ancient laws of Manu, was not allowed, as well as the transition from one varna to another - higher or lower. Such a rigid hierarchical structure was not only protected by laws and tradition, but was directly related to key idea Indian religion - the idea of ​​​​reincarnation: “As childhood, youth and old age come to the embodied here, so does a new body come: the sage will not be puzzled by this” (Bhagavad Gita).

It was believed that being in a certain varna is a consequence of karma, that is, the cumulative result of one’s actions and deeds in past lives. The better a person behaved in past lives, the more chances he had the opportunity to incarnate in a higher varna in his next life. After all, varna affiliation was given by birth and could not change throughout a person’s life. This may seem strange to a modern Westerner, but such a concept, completely dominant in India for several millennia until today, created, on the one hand, the basis for the political stability of society, on the other, it was a moral code for huge sections of the population.

Therefore, the fact that the varna structure is invisibly present in the life of modern India (the caste system is officially enshrined in the main law of the country) is most likely directly related to the strength of religious convictions and beliefs that have stood the test of time and have remained almost unchanged to this day.

But is the secret of the “survivability” of the varna system only in the power of religious ideas? Perhaps ancient India managed to anticipate the structure in some way modern societies And is it not by chance that L. Dumont calls castes a civilizational model?

A modern interpretation of the varna division might look, for example, like this.

Brahmins are people of knowledge, those who receive knowledge, teach it and develop new knowledge. Since in modern “knowledge” societies (a term officially adopted by UNESCO), which have already replaced information societies, not only information, but knowledge is gradually becoming the most valuable capital, surpassing all material analogues, it becomes clear that people of knowledge belong to the highest strata of society .

Kshatriyas are people of duty, senior managers, government-level administrators, military personnel and representatives of the “security agencies” - those who guarantee law and order and serve their people and their country.

Vaishyas are people of action, businessmen, creators and organizers of their business, whose main goal is to make a profit; they create a product that is in demand in the market. Vaishyas now, just like in ancient times, “feed” other varnas, creating the material basis for the economic growth of the state.

Shudras are people for hire, hired workers, for whom it is easier not to take responsibility, but to carry out the work assigned to them under the control of management.

Living “in your varna,” from this point of view, means living in accordance with your natural abilities, innate predisposition to a certain type of activity and in accordance with your calling in this life. This can give a feeling of inner peace and satisfaction that a person is living his own, and not someone else’s, life and destiny (dharma). It is not for nothing that the importance of following one’s dharma, or duty, is spoken of in one of the sacred texts included in the Hindu canon - the Bhagavad Gita: “It is better to fulfill one’s duties, even imperfectly, than the duties of others perfectly. It’s better to die doing your duty; someone else’s path is dangerous.”

In this “cosmic” aspect, the varna division looks like a completely pragmatic system for realizing a kind of “call of the soul”, or, in higher language, fulfilling one’s destiny (duty, mission, task, calling, dharma).

The Untouchables

In ancient India there was a group of people who were not part of any of the varnas - the so-called untouchables, who de facto still exist in India. The emphasis on the actual state of affairs is made because the situation with the untouchables in real life is somewhat different from the legal formalization of the caste system in modern India.

The untouchables in ancient India were a special group that performed work associated with the then ideas about ritual impurity, for example, dressing animal skins, collecting garbage, and corpses.

In modern India, the term untouchables is not officially used, as are its analogues: harijan - “children of God” (a concept introduced by Mahatma Gandhi) or pariah (“outcast”) and others. Instead, there is a concept of Dalit, which is not believed to carry the connotation of caste discrimination prohibited in the Indian Constitution. According to the 2001 census, Dalits constitute 16.2% of India's total population and 79.8% of the total rural population.

Although the Indian Constitution has abolished the concept of untouchability, ancient traditions continue to dominate the mass consciousness, which even leads to the killing of untouchables under various pretexts. At the same time, there are cases when a person belonging to a “pure” caste is ostracized for daring to do “dirty” work. Thus, Pinky Rajak, a 22-year-old woman from the caste of Indian washerwomen, who traditionally wash and iron clothes, caused outrage among the elders of her caste because she began cleaning at a local school, that is, she violated the strict caste ban on dirty work, thereby insulting her community.

Castes Today

To protect certain castes from discrimination, there are various privileges given to citizens of lower castes, such as reservation of seats in legislatures and public service, partial or full tuition fees in schools and colleges, quotas in higher education educational institutions. In order to avail the right to such a benefit, a citizen belonging to a state-protected caste must obtain and present a special caste certificate - proof of his membership in a particular caste listed in the caste table, which is part of the Constitution of India.

Today in India, belonging to a high caste by birth does not automatically mean high level material security. Often, children from poor families of the upper castes, who enter college or university on a general basis with great competition, have much less chance of getting an education than children from lower castes.

The debate about actual discrimination against upper castes has been going on for many years. There are opinions that in modern India there is a gradual erosion of caste boundaries. Indeed, it is now almost impossible to determine which caste an Indian belongs to (especially in major cities), and not only in appearance, but often also in the nature of his professional activity.

Creation of national elites

The formation of the structure of the Indian state in the form in which it is presented now (developed democracy, parliamentary republic) began in the 20th century.

In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms were carried out, the main goal of which was the establishment and development of a system of local government. Under the English governor-general, who had previously virtually ruled the Indian colony single-handedly, a bicameral legislative body was created. In all Indian provinces, a system of dual power (diarchy) was created, when both representatives of the English administration and representatives of the local Indian population were in charge. Thus, at the very beginning of the twentieth century, democratic procedures were introduced for the first time on the Asian continent. The British, unwittingly, contributed to the formation of the future independence of India.

After India gained independence, the need arose to attract national personnel to lead the country. Since only the educated strata of Indian society had a real opportunity to “restart” social institutions under conditions of independence, it is clear that the leading role in governing the country mainly belonged to the brahmins and kshatriyas. That is why the unification of the new elites was practically conflict-free, since the brahmins and kshatriyas historically belonged to the highest castes.

Since 1920, the popularity of Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated a united India without the British, began to grow. The Indian National Congress, which he headed, was not so much a party as a national social movement. Gandhi managed to accomplish something that no one had succeeded before - albeit temporarily, but he practically eliminated the conflict of interests between the higher and lower castes.

What tomorrow?

In India in the Middle Ages there were no cities similar to European ones. These cities could rather be called large villages, where time seemed to stand still. Until recently (especially intensive changes began to occur in the last 15–20 years), tourists coming from the West could feel themselves in a medieval atmosphere. Real changes began after independence. The course towards industrialization taken in the second half of the twentieth century caused an increase in the rate of economic growth, which, in turn, led to an increase in the share of the urban population and the emergence of new social groups.

Over the past 15–20 years, many Indian cities have changed beyond recognition. Most of the almost “homey” neighborhoods in the center turned into concrete jungles, and the poor neighborhoods on the outskirts were transformed into residential areas for the middle class.

According to forecasts, by 2028, India's population will exceed 1.5 billion people, the largest percentage of them will be young people and, compared to Western countries, the country will have the largest labor force.

Today, in many countries there is a shortage of qualified personnel in the field of medicine, education and IT services. This situation has contributed to the development in India of such a rapidly growing economic sector as the provision of remote services, for example in the United States and Western European countries. The Indian government is now investing heavily in education, especially in schools. You can see with your own eyes how in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas, where 15-20 years ago there were only remote villages, state technological colleges have grown up in large areas, with beautiful buildings and infrastructure, intended for local children from the same villages. The bet on education in the age of “knowledge” societies, especially on school and university education, is a win-win, and it is no coincidence that India occupies one of the leading places in the field of computer technology.

This projection of Indian population growth could be optimistic for India and lead to significant economic growth as well. But growth doesn't happen by itself. It is necessary to create conditions: new jobs, ensuring industrial employment and, no less important, providing qualified training to all this huge mass of human resources. All this is not an easy task and rather a challenge for the state, rather than a bonus. If not fulfilled necessary conditions There will be mass unemployment, a sharp decline in the living standards of the population and, as a consequence, negative changes in the social structure.

Until now, the existing caste system has been a kind of “fuse” against various kinds of social upheavals throughout the country. However, times are changing, Western technologies are intensively penetrating not only the Indian economy, but into the consciousness and subconscious of the masses, especially in cities, forming a new, non-traditional for many Indians model of desires according to the principle “I want more now.” This model is intended primarily for the so-called middle class (“so-called” because for India its boundaries are blurred and the criteria for membership are not entirely clear). The question of whether the caste system can still serve as a protector against social cataclysms in the new conditions remains open.

In the colonies of Latin America. Later, by analogy, it was extended to a similar phenomenon in India and since then has been applied mainly to Indian varnas and jatis. However, there is a fundamental difference between the Latin American castes and the Indian varnas; between the former, at least formally, mixing of any kind was allowed, as a rule, leading to the transfer of offspring to another caste; furthermore, Latin American castes were based primarily on visual differences. Mixing between Indian varnas was in most cases unacceptable, and between jatis (subdivisions of varnas) was sharply limited.

Varnas and jati

Of the most early works Sanskrit literature knows that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (with Skt.  -  “color”): Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, cattle breeders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

While a Hindu may not have varna, he always has jati. While enjoying political equality in India, members of different jatis have varying degrees of access to traditional religious practices. By prohibiting the official use of the category "untouchable" and equating the term "community" with "jati", the Indian government creates favorable conditions for Sanskritization: the creation of mythologies by untouchables about the origin of their jatis from groups possessing varna, and the adoption of the ritual rules of higher jatis - which gives a chance for a gradual change in the status of the jati. Over the course of one or two generations, an untouchable jati may be included in the number of sudras or even “twice-born”.

Castes in modern India

The Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. IN last time information on the number of castes was published in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as stand-alone podcasts. social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. Position [ ], occupied by the INC and the Government of India after the death of Mahatma Gandhi, is notable for its inconsistency. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need politicians in the support of the electorate they gave new importance to the corporate spirit and internal cohesion of the castes.

However, despite the fact that castes have existed in India for more than two millennia, their influence and importance in society (especially in cities) is gradually being lost, although this process is quite slow in rural areas. In big cities, castes are especially quickly losing their importance among the liberal intelligentsia, as well as in the business community.

Researcher Andre Padou in the article “Tantric Guru” states that a Hindu tantric guru, according to tradition, usually must be a Brahmin varna, come from a good family, as a rule, the guru must be male, married, know the shastras and be able to teach them, etc. d. The Hindu guru Paramahamsa Prajnanananda, in his commentary on the Jnana Sankalini Tantra, states: “The scriptures say that a competent guru must be a person of pure birth, coming from a Brahmin family.”

Sanskritization: vertical mobility of castes

If in theory the status of a caste is fixed and cannot be increased, in practice there is the possibility of a gradual revision of the hierarchical status of the caste. Indian ethnologist Mysore Srinivas called this process "Sanskritization". The creation of a mythology about higher origins and the assimilation of the rules of ritual purity of higher castes play a key role.

Sanskritization is a way of including foreigners (mlecchas, outcastes) who are outside the varna system into traditional Hinduism. Mysore Srinivas wrote: “Sanskritization is not limited to Hindu castes but occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups such as the Bhīl of Western India, the Gond and Orāon of Central India, and the Pahārī of the Himalayas. This usually results in the Sanskritized tribe claiming to be a caste and thus becoming Hindu. In the traditional system, the only way to become a Hindu is to belong to a caste." The subject of Sanskritization is not an individual person or even a family - but only ethnic group, which has its own cult, which is included in the orbit of traditional Hinduism. A representative of the priestly caste, finding himself surrounded by foreigners (mlecchas), recognizes his own deities in the images of their religion, then interprets the genealogy of the rulers in favor of descent from the Hindu caste - and adapts the local cult to Hindu ritual.

According to a study by S. L. Shrivastava, conducted in the village of Asalpur in the state of Rajasthan, Naths and Dhobis were included in the untouchables: “Among the “untouchables” are Balais (Balāī), Chamars (Chamār), washerwomen Dhobi (Dhobī), “sect”-caste Nath (Nāt/Nāth) and Bhangī cleaners." According to a study by K. Mathur, conducted in the village of Potlod in the Malwa region of the same state of Rajasthan, the Sanskritized Naths already “occupy a place between the “twice-born” and the Shudras, only slightly higher than the latter, because they are engaged in religion”; and “their way of life is quite well Sanskritized, they follow the rules of ritual purity.” Sanskritization also allowed the Dhobi washer caste to upgrade their status in the Potlod from untouchable to sudra.

Ethnic non-Hindus find themselves outside the varna system: in particular, Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims. In the hermit order of Natha Yoga, hermits of Hindu origin refuse to eat together with hermits who do not have varna. Sannyasa excludes the spiritual practitioner from the hereditary professional group (jati), but does not deprive him of varna if he initially possessed varna: the rules of ritual purity when eating food continue to be observed in hermitage.

Preservation of the caste system in other religions of India

Social inertia has led to the fact that stratification into castes exists among Indian Christians and Muslims, although it is an anomaly from the point of view of the Bible and the Koran. Christian and Muslim castes have a number of differences from the classical Indian system; they even have some social mobility, that is, the opportunity to move from one caste to another. In Buddhism, castes do not exist (which is why Indian “untouchables” are especially willing to convert to Buddhism), but it can be considered a relic of Indian traditions that in Buddhist society the social identification of the interlocutor is of great importance. In addition, although Buddhists themselves do not recognize castes, speakers of other Indian religions can often easily determine what caste their Buddhist interlocutor comes from and treat him accordingly. Indian legislation provides a number of social guarantees for “disadvantaged castes” among Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists, but does not provide such guarantees for Christians - representatives of the same castes.

Castes in modern Nepal

The Nepalese caste system developed in parallel with the Indian one. Indian influence in Nepal especially increased during the Gupta dynasty (320−500); Nepal then had the status of a “neighboring kingdom”, but subordinate to Samudragupta.

Later, from the 10th century, many Hindus (as well as numerous Brahmins) migrated from India to Nepal, predominantly fleeing the Arab invasion and the introduction of Islam, especially from northeastern India. At the same time, refugees sought to preserve their original culture and rituals.

To understand Nepali caste relations, let's look at the various caste systems schematically.

Classical Hindu model of caste hierarchy Nepalese caste system from the perspective of Bahuns and Chhetris

The untouchable caste makes up about 7 percent of the population in Nepal.

Caste system from the Newari point of view

The Hindu Newaris, who exclusively inhabit the Kathmandu Valley, use the following caste system, partially adopted from the Buddhist Newars. However, the caste system in Newari communities is not as important as in other nations.

The diagram above shows the castes according to the Newari Hindus, and the bottom - the Newari Buddhists.

Majority opinion on the caste system

The majority, which includes liberal Bahuns and Chhetris and peoples without their own caste systems, consider the following hierarchy to be significant for religious ritual:

chokho jaat(Pure Castes) / pani initial jaat(Untouchable Castes)

In practice, it happens that belonging to castes is associated with material well-being, that is, the poor are considered untouchables, and the rich are classified as upper castes. This results in foreigners of European origin, who are not Hindus and should therefore be considered untouchables, being classified as upper castes, but when it comes to dealings related to ritual activities, they are treated as untouchables. In particular, we are talking about rituals related to water and cooking rice.

see also

Notes

1. Vasmer M. Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language: In 4 volumes: Trans. with him. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.:

The caste system in India is social hierarchy, dividing the entire population of the country into separate groups of both low and high origin. Such a system presents various rules and prohibitions.

Main types of castes

Types of castes come from 4 varnas (which means genus, species), according to which the entire population was divided. The division of society into varnas was based on the fact that people cannot be the same; there is a certain hierarchy, since each person has his own path in life.

The highest varna was varna brahmins, that is, priests, teachers, scientists, mentors. The second in rank is the kshatriya varna, which means rulers, nobility, and warriors. Next varna Vaishyas, these included cattle breeders, farmers, and traders. The last varna sudra consisted of servants and dependent people.

The first three varnas and sudras had a clear, even sharp boundary between themselves. The highest varna is also called “dvija”, which means twice-born. Ancient Indians believed that when people were born a second time, an initiation ceremony took place and a sacred thread was tied onto them.

The main goal of the brahmans was that they had to teach others and learn themselves, bring gifts to the gods, and perform sacrifices. The main color is white.

Kshatriyas

The task of the kshatriyas is to protect the people and also to study. Their color is red.

Vaishya

The main responsibility of Vaishyas is cultivating land, raising livestock and other socially respected work. Yellow color.

Shudras

The purpose of the sudras is to serve the three highest varnas and engage in hard physical work. They did not have their own quest and could not pray to the gods. Their color is black.

These people were outside the castes. Most often they lived in villages and could only do the hardest work.

Over the centuries, the social structure and India itself have changed significantly. As a result, the number of public groups increased from four to several thousand. The lowest caste was the most numerous. Of the total population, it included approximately 40 percent of the residents. The upper caste was small, comprising about 8 percent of the population. The middle caste was approximately 22 percent and the untouchables were 17 percent.

Members of some castes may be scattered throughout the country, while others, for example, live in one area. But in any case, representatives of each caste live separately and isolated from each other.

Castes in India can be easily identified based on numerous characteristics. People have different types, the manner of wearing them, the presence or absence of certain relationships, marks on the forehead, hairstyle, type of housing, food consumed, dishes and their names. It is almost impossible to pose as a member of another caste.

What helps keep the principles of caste hierarchy and isolation unchanged for so many centuries? Of course, it has its own system of prohibitions and rules. This system controls social, everyday and religious relations. Some rules are unchangeable and eternal, while others are changeable and secondary. For example, every Hindu from birth to death will belong to his caste. The only exception can be his expulsion from the caste due to violation of laws. No one has the right to choose a caste of his own free will or to move to another caste. It is forbidden to marry a person from outside your caste only if the husband belongs to a higher varna than his wife. The opposite is categorically unacceptable.

In addition to the untouchables, there are also Indian hermits, who are called sannyasins. Caste rules do not affect them in any way. Each caste has its own type of occupation, that is, some are engaged only in agriculture, others in trade, others in weaving, etc. The customs of the caste must be strictly observed and executed. For example, a higher caste cannot accept food or drink from a lower caste, otherwise it will be considered ritual pollution.

This entire system of hierarchy of social strata of the population is based on a powerful foundation of ancient institutions. In accordance with them, it is believed that a person belongs to one or another caste due to the fact that he performed all the caste duties in his role poorly or well. past life. As a result of this, a Hindu must undergo births and deaths, which are influenced by previously received karma. Previously, movements had been created that rejected these divisions.

Caste system of modern India

Every year in modern India, caste restrictions and the strictness of their observance are gradually weakening. Not all prohibitions and rules require strict and zealous observance. It is already difficult to determine by appearance what caste a person belongs to, with the exception, perhaps, of the Brahmins, whom you can see in temples or, if you go to. Only the caste rules regarding marriage are completely unchanged and will not be relaxed. Also today in India there is a struggle against the caste system. To achieve this, special benefits are established for those who are officially registered as representatives of a lower caste. Discrimination based on caste is prohibited by Indian law and can be punishable as a criminal offence. But still, the old system is firmly rooted in the country, and the fight against it is not as successful as many would like.

Recently I was preparing an anthropology essay on the topic “Indian Mentality”. The creation process was very exciting, since the country itself amazes with its traditions and characteristics. If anyone is interested, read it.

I was especially struck by the plight of women in India, the phrase that “The husband is the earthly God” is very difficult life untouchables (the last class in India), and the happy existence of cows and bulls.

Contents of the first part:
1. general information
2. Castes

1 . General information about India

INDIA, Republic of India (in Hindi - Bharat), a state in South Asia.
Capital - Delhi
Area - 3,287,590 km2.
Ethnic composition. 72% Indo-Aryans, 25% Dravidians, 3% Mongoloids.

The official name of the country , India, comes from the ancient Persian word Hindu, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit sindhu (Sanskrit: सिन्धु), the historical name of the Indus River. The ancient Greeks called the Indians Indoi (ancient Greek Ἰνδοί) - “people of the Indus”. The Indian Constitution also recognizes a second name, Bharat (Hindi भारत), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of the ancient Indian king, whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name, Hindustan, has been used since the time of the Mughal Empire, but has no official status.

Indian territory in the north it extends 2930 km in the latitudinal direction, and 3220 km in the meridional direction. India is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its neighbors are Pakistan in the northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. India also shares maritime borders with the Maldives in the southwest, Sri Lanka in the south and Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.

India ranks seventh in the world by area, second largest population (after China) , on this moment lives in it 1.2 billion people. India has had one of the highest population densities in the world for thousands of years.

Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent, which had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.

More than 900 million Indians (80.5% of the population) profess Hinduism. Other religions with significant numbers of followers are Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism (0.4%). Religions such as Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Baha'i and others are also represented in India. Animism is common among the aboriginal population, which makes up 8.1%.

Almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although last decades migration to large cities led to a sharp increase in the urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The gender composition of the population is characterized by an excess of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5%, and the female population is 48.5%. For every thousand men there are 929 women, this ratio has been observed since the beginning of this century.

India is home to the Indo-Aryan language family (74% of the population) and the Dravidian language family (24% of the population). Other languages ​​spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India, is the official language of the Indian government. English language, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of an “auxiliary official language”, it also plays a large role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. The Constitution of India defines 21 official languages ​​that are spoken by a significant part of the population or that have classical status. There are 1652 dialects in India.

Climate humid and warm, mostly tropical, tropical monsoon in the north. India, located in tropical and subequatorial latitudes, fenced off by the wall of the Himalayas from the influence of continental Arctic air masses, is one of the hottest countries in the world with a typical monsoon climate. The monsoon rhythm of precipitation determines the rhythm of economic work and the entire way of life. 70-80% of the annual rainfall falls during the four months of the monsoon season (June-September), when the southwest monsoon arrives and rains almost incessantly. This is the main Kharif field season. October-November is the post-monsoon period when the rains mostly stop. The winter season (December-February) is dry and cool, at this time roses and many other flowers bloom, many trees bloom - this is the most pleasant time to visit India. March-May is the hottest, driest season, when temperatures often exceed 35 °C, often rising above 40 °C. This is a time of sweltering heat, when the grass burns out, leaves fall from the trees, and air conditioners work at full capacity in rich houses.

National animal - tiger.

National bird - peacock.

National flower - lotus.

National fruit - mango.

The national currency is the Indian rupee.

India can be called the cradle of human civilization. The Indians were the first in the world to learn how to grow rice, cotton, and sugar cane, and they were the first to raise poultry. India gave the world chess and decimal system calculus.
The average literacy rate in the country is 52%, with the figure for men being 64% and for women 39%.

2. Castes in India

CASTES - division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent.

For many centuries, caste was determined primarily by profession. The profession that passed from father to son often did not change throughout the lives of dozens of generations.

Each caste lives according to its own dharma - with that set of traditional religious instructions and prohibitions, the creation of which is attributed to the gods, to divine revelation. Dharma determines the norms of behavior of members of each caste, regulates their actions and even feelings. Dharma is that elusive but immutable thing that is pointed out to a child already in the days of his first babble. Everyone must act in accordance with his own dharma, deviation from dharma is lawlessness - this is what children are taught at home and at school, this is what the brahmana - mentor and spiritual leader - repeats. And a person grows up in the consciousness of the absolute inviolability of the laws of dharma, their immutability.

Currently, the caste system is officially prohibited, and the strict division of crafts or professions depending on caste is gradually being eliminated, while at the same time a government policy is being pursued to reward those who have been oppressed for centuries at the expense of representatives of other castes. It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes are losing their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case.

In fact, the caste system itself has not gone away: when entering school, a student is asked about his religion, and if he professes Hinduism, his caste, in order to know whether there is a place in this school for representatives of this caste in accordance with state norms. When entering a college or university, caste is important in order to correctly estimate the threshold score (the lower the caste, the fewer points are enough for passing score). When applying for a job, caste is again important in order to maintain balance. Although castes are not forgotten even when arranging the future of their children - weekly supplements with marriage advertisements are published in major Indian newspapers, in which columns are divided into religions, and the most voluminous column is with representatives of Hinduism - on castes. Often under such advertisements, which describe the parameters of both the groom (or bride) and the requirements for the prospective applicants (or applicants), the standard phrase “Cast no bar” is placed, which translated means “Caste does not matter,” but, to be honest, I doubt a little that for a bride from the Brahman caste, her parents will seriously consider a groom from a caste lower than the Kshatriyas. Yes, inter-caste marriages are also not always approved, but they do happen if, for example, the groom occupies a higher position in society than the bride’s parents (but this is not a mandatory requirement - cases vary). In such marriages, the caste of the children is determined by the father. So, if a girl from a Brahmin family marries a Kshatriya boy, then their children will belong to the Kshatriya caste. If a Kshatriya youth marries a Veishya girl, then their children will also be considered Kshatriyas.

The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups. In 2011, India plans to conduct a general population census, which will take into account the caste affiliation of the inhabitants of this country.

The main characteristics of the Indian caste:
. endogamy (marriage exclusively between caste members);
. hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste);
. prohibition on sharing meals with representatives of other castes, as well as having physical contact with them;
. recognition of the firmly established place of each caste in hierarchical structure society as a whole;
. restrictions on choosing a profession;

Indians believe that Manu is the first person from whom we all descended. Once upon a time, the god Vishnu saved him from the Flood, which destroyed the rest of humanity, after which Manu came up with rules that should henceforth guide people. Hindus believe that it was 30 thousand years ago (historians stubbornly date the laws of Manu to the 1st-2nd centuries BC and generally claim that this collection of instructions is a compilation of the works of different authors). Like most other religious precepts, the laws of Manu are distinguished by exceptional meticulousness and attention to the most insignificant details human life- from changing babies to cooking recipes. But it also contains much more fundamental things. It is according to the laws of Manu that all Indians are divided into four estates - varnas.

Varnas, of which there are only four, are often confused with castes, of which there are a great many. Caste is a fairly small community of people united by profession, nationality and place of residence. And varnas are more similar to categories such as workers, entrepreneurs, employees and the intelligentsia.

There are four main varnas: Brahmanas (officials), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (peasants, workers, servants). The rest are “untouchables”.

Brahmins are the highest caste in India.

Brahmins appeared from the mouth of Brahma. The meaning of life for brahmins is moksha, or liberation.
These are scientists, ascetics, priests. (Teachers and priests)
Today Brahmins most often work as officials.
The most famous is Jawaharlal Nehru.

In a typical rural area, the highest stratum of the caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, and a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local sanctuaries and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their own circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar subcaste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to follow the plow or perform certain types of manual labor; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate plots, but not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.

A Brahman has no right to eat food prepared outside his caste, but members of all other castes can eat from the hands of Brahmans. When choosing food, a Brahmin observes many prohibitions. Members of the Vaishnava caste (who worship the god Vishnu) have adhered to vegetarianism since the 4th century, when it became widespread; some other castes of Brahmins who worship Shiva (Shaiva Brahmins) do not, in principle, renounce meat dishes, but abstain from the meat of animals included in the diet of the lower castes.

Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most high- or middle-status castes, except those considered "impure". Brahmin priests, as well as members of a number of religious orders, are often recognized by their “caste marks” - patterns painted on the forehead with white, yellow or red paint. But such marks indicate only belonging to the main sect and characterize this person as a worshiper of, for example, Vishnu or Shiva, and not as a subject of a particular caste or sub-caste.
Brahmins, more than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for in their varna. Over the course of many centuries, scribes, clerks, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials emerged from their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

In communicating with the rest of the population, Brahmins do not allow reciprocity; Thus, they accept money or gifts from members of other castes, but they themselves never make gifts of a ritual or ceremonial nature. There is no complete equality among the Brahman castes, but even the lowest of them stands above the rest of the highest castes.

The mission of a member of the Brahmin caste is to study, teach, receive gifts and give gifts. By the way, all Indian programmers are Brahmins.

Kshatriyas

Warriors who emerged from the hands of Brahma.
These are warriors, administrators, kings, nobles, rajas, maharajahs.
The most famous is Buddha Shakyamuni
For a kshatriya, the main thing is dharma, fulfillment of duty.

After the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landowners, possibly related to former ruling houses(for example, with the Rajput princes in North India). Traditional occupations in such castes are working as managers on estates and serving in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy the same power and authority. In ritual terms, the Kshatriyas are immediately behind the Brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower subcaste (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man from a subcaste lower than her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to accept food from Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.

Vaishya

They emerged from the thighs of Brahma.
These are artisans, traders, farmers, entrepreneurs (layers that engage in trade).
The Gandhi family is from the Vaishyas, and at one time the fact that it was born with the Nehru Brahmins caused a huge scandal.
The main motivation in life is artha, or the desire for wealth, for property, for accumulation.

The third category includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show the same attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict in observing the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of Vaishyas is trade and banking; they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landowners and village entrepreneurs, without directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

Shudras

Came from the feet of Brahma.
Peasant caste. (farms, servants, artisans, workers)
The main aspiration at the sudra stage is kama. These are pleasures, pleasant experiences delivered by the senses.
Mithun Chakraborty from "Disco Dancer" is a sudra.

They, due to their numbers and ownership of a significant part of local land, play an important role in solving social and political issues in some areas. Shudras eat meat, and widows and divorced women are allowed to marry. The lower Shudras are numerous sub-castes whose profession is of a highly specialized nature. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, oil makers, distillers, masons, hairdressers, musicians, tanners (those who sew products from finished leather), butchers, scavengers and many others. Members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if a Shudra is able to acquire land, any of them can engage in agriculture. Members of many craft and other professional castes have traditionally had traditional relationships with members of higher castes, which consist of the provision of services for which no salary is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village whose requests are satisfied by a given member of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he makes and repairs equipment and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

The Untouchables

Those engaged in the dirtiest jobs are often poor or very poor people.
They are outside the Hindu society.

Activities such as tanning leather or slaughtering animals are considered clearly polluting, and although this work is very important to the community, those who engage in it are considered untouchables. They are engaged in cleaning dead animals from streets and fields, toilets, tanning leather, and cleaning sewers. They work as scavengers, tanners, flayers, potters, prostitutes, laundresses, shoemakers, and are hired for the hardest work in mines, construction sites, etc. That is, everyone who comes into contact with one of the three dirty things specified in the laws of Manu - sewage, corpses and clay - or leads a wandering life on the streets.

In many respects they are outside the boundaries of Hindu society, they were called "outcaste", "low", "scheduled" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijans" ("children of God"), which became widely used. But they themselves prefer to call themselves “Dalits” - “broken”. Members of these castes are prohibited from using public wells and taps. You cannot walk on the sidewalks so as not to inadvertently come into contact with a representative of the highest caste, because they will have to cleanse themselves after such contact in the temple. In some areas of cities and villages they are generally prohibited from appearing. Dalits are also prohibited from visiting temples; only a few times a year they are allowed to cross the threshold of the sanctuaries, after which the temple is subjected to thorough ritual cleansing. If a Dalit wants to buy something in a store, he must put money at the entrance and shout from the street what he needs - the purchase will be taken out and left on the doorstep. A Dalit is prohibited from starting a conversation with a representative of a higher caste or calling him on the phone.

After some Indian states passed laws fining canteen owners for refusing to feed Dalits, most catering establishments installed special cabinets with dishes for them. However, if the canteen does not have a separate room for Dalits, they have to dine outside.

Most Hindu temples until recently were closed to untouchables; there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than a set number of steps. The nature of caste barriers is such that Harijans are believed to continue to pollute members of the “pure” castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in other social settings and situations, such as being in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable may have physical contact with members of higher castes and not pollute them, in his home village untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

When British journalist of Indian origin Ramita Navai decided to make a revolutionary film revealing to the world the terrible truth about the life of untouchables (Dalits), she endured a lot. She courageously looked at the Dalit teenagers frying and eating rats. Of little children splashing in the gutter and playing with parts of a dead dog. A housewife cutting up more decorative pieces from a rotten pig carcass. But when the well-groomed journalist was taken on a work shift by ladies from a caste that traditionally cleans toilets by hand, the poor thing vomited right in front of the camera. “Why do these people live like this?!! - a journalist asked us in the last seconds of the documentary “Dalit Means Broken”. Yes, because why the child of the Brahmins spent the morning and evening hours in prayers, and at the age of three the son of a kshatriya was put on a horse and taught to swing a saber. For a Dalit, the ability to live in the dirt is his valor, his skill. Dalits know better than anyone: those who are afraid of dirt will die faster than others.

There are several hundred untouchable castes.
Every fifth Indian is a Dalit - that's at least 200 million people.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that whoever follows the rules of his caste future life will rise by birth to a higher caste, but the one who breaks these rules will generally not know who he will become in his next life.

The first three high classes of varnas were required to undergo an initiation rite, after which they were called twice-born. Members of high castes, especially Brahmins, then wore a “sacred thread” over their shoulders. Twice-born people were allowed to study the Vedas, but only brahmanas could preach them. Shudras were strictly forbidden not only to study, but even to listen to the words of Vedic teachings.

Clothing, despite its apparent uniformity, is different for different castes and significantly distinguishes a member of a high caste from a member of a low one. Some wrap their hips with a wide strip of fabric that falls to the ankles, for others it should not cover their knees, women of some castes should drape their bodies in a strip of fabric of at least seven or nine meters, while women of others should not use fabric longer than four or five on their sari meters, some were required to wear a certain type of jewelry, others were prohibited from it, some could use an umbrella, others did not have the right to do so, etc. and so on. The type of housing, food, even the vessels for its preparation - everything is determined, everything is prescribed, everything is learned from childhood by a member of each caste.

That is why in India it is very difficult to pretend to be a member of any other caste - such imposture will be immediately exposed. Only one can do this who has studied the dharma of another caste for many years and had the opportunity to practice it. And even then he can only succeed so much far from his locality, where they know nothing about his village or city. And that’s why the most terrible punishment has always been exclusion from the caste, loss of one’s social face, and severance from all production ties.

Even the untouchables, who from century to century performed the dirtiest work, were brutally suppressed and exploited by members of higher castes, those untouchables who were humiliated and disdained as something unclean - they were still considered members of caste society. They had their own dharma, they could be proud of their adherence to its rules, and they maintained their long-legalized industrial ties. They had their own very definite caste face and their own very definite place, albeit in the lowest layers of this multi-layered hive.

Bibliography:
1. Guseva N.R. - India in the mirror of centuries. Moscow, VECHE, 2002
2. Snesarev A.E. - Ethnographic India. Moscow, Nauka, 1981
3. Material from Wikipedia - India:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F
4. Online Encyclopedia Around the world - India:
http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/strany_mira/INDIYA.html
5. Marry an Indian: life, traditions, features:
http://tomarryindian.blogspot.com/
6. Interesting articles about tourism. India. Women of India.
http://turistua.com/article/258.htm
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http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC
8. Bharatiya.ru - pilgrimage and travel through India, Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet.
http://www.bharatiya.ru/index.html