Four Indian Varnas

Varnas and castes in our time

One and a half thousand years BC, Indian society was divided into 4 classes. They were called varnas. From Sanskrit it is translated as “color”, “quality” or “category”. According to the Rig Veda, varnas or castes emerged from the body of God Brahma.

In ancient India there were originally the following castes (varnas):

• Brahmins;
• Kshatriyas;
• Vaishya;
• Shudras.

According to legend, Brahma created 4 castes from parts of his body

The emergence of castes in ancient India

There are many reasons for the emergence of varnas or the so-called Indian castes. For example, the Aryans (not to be confused with the pseudoscientific “Aryans”), having conquered Indian land, decided to divide the local people according to skin color, origin and financial situation. This simplified social relationships and created winning conditions for government. The Aryans obviously elevated themselves to a higher caste and took only Brahmin girls as wives.

A more detailed table of Indian castes with rights and responsibilities

Caste, Varna and Jati - what is the difference?

Most people confuse the concepts of “caste” and “varna”; many consider them synonymous. But this is not the case, and it needs to be dealt with.

Every Indian, without the right to choose, was born in a closed group - in varna. They are sometimes called the Indian caste. However, caste in India is a subgroup, a stratification in each varna, so there are countless castes today. Only in 1931, according to the census, data on 3,000 Indian castes were published. And varna is always 4.

In fact, there are more than 3000 castes in India, and there are always four varnas

Jati is the second name of caste and sub-caste, and every resident of India has a jati. Jati - belonging to a particular profession, to a religious community, it is also closed and endogamous.

Each varna has its own jatis.

You can draw a primitive analogy with our society. For example, there are children of rich parents. This is varna. They study in separate kindergartens, schools and universities, and communicate mainly with each other. These children, growing into teenagers, are divided into subcultures. Some become hipsters, some become “elite” entrepreneurs, others become creative intellectuals, and some become free travelers. This is jati or caste.

They can be divided by interests, by chosen professions. However, oddly enough, people of this varna rarely “mix” with other, lower varnas and even castes, and always strive to communicate with those who are higher than them.

Four Indian Varnas

Brahmins- the highest varna or caste in India. It included priests, clergy, sages, teachers, spiritual guides and those people who connected other people with God. Brahmins were vegetarians and could only eat food prepared by people of their castes.

Brahmins are the highest and most respected caste in India

Kshatriyas is an Indian caste or varna of warriors, defenders of their country, combatants, soldiers and, surprisingly, kings and rulers. Kshatriyas were the protectors of brahmanas, women, old people, children and cows. They were allowed to kill those who did not observe the dharma.

Most prominent representatives Kshatriya warrior castes are Sikhs

Vaishya- these are free community members, traders, artisans, farmers, the working class. They did not like to do hard physical labor and were extremely scrupulous about food. Among them could be very wealthy and wealthy people - owners of enterprises and lands.

The Vaishya caste is often rich merchants and landowners who do not like hard menial work

Shudras- the lowest varna or caste of India. It included servants, laborers and laborers. All those who had neither home nor land, and performed the most difficult physical work. Shudras did not have the right to pray to the gods and become “twice-born”.

Shudras are the lowest caste in India. They live poorly and work very hard

The religious ceremony that was performed by the three upper varnas or castes of India was called “upanayana”. During the process of initiation, a consecrated thread corresponding to his varna was placed around the boy's neck, and from then on he became “dvija” or “twice-born”. He received a new name and was considered a brahmachari - a student.

Each caste has its own rituals and initiations

Hindus believe that living a righteous life allows one to be born into a higher caste in next life. And vice versa. And the brahmins, who have already gone through a large cycle of rebirths on Earth, will be incarnated on other, divine planets.

The untouchable caste - myth and reality

Special attention should be paid to the untouchables. The existence of 5 Indian castes is a myth. In fact, untouchables are those people who did not fall into the 4 varnas for some reason. According to Hinduism, they led an impious life in their previous rebirth. The “caste” of untouchables in India is most often homeless, poor people who carry out the most humiliating and dirty work. They beg and steal. They defile the Indian Brahman caste with their presence.

This is how the untouchable caste lives in India today

The Government of India protects the untouchables to some extent. It is a criminal offense to call such people untouchables or even out-caste. Discrimination on social grounds is prohibited.

Varnas and castes in India today

What castes are there in India today? - you ask. And there are thousands of castes in India. Some of them are few in number, but there are also castes known throughout the country. For example, hijras. This is the Indian untouchable caste, in India it includes transgenders, transsexuals, bisexuals, hermaphrodites, intersex people and homosexuals. Their processions can be seen on the streets of cities and towns, where they make offerings to the Mother Goddess. Thanks to numerous protests, the Indian hijra caste achieved official recognition of itself as a “third gender”.

People with non-traditional sexual orientation (Hijras) in India also belong to the untouchable caste

Varnas and castes in India in our time are considered some kind of relic of the past, but in vain - the system remains. In big cities, the boundaries are somewhat blurred, but in the villages the old way of life is still preserved. According to the Constitution of India, discrimination against people based on varna or caste is prohibited. There is even a Constitutional Table of Castes, in which, by the way, the term “community” is used instead of “Indian caste”. It states that every citizen of India has the right to receive an appropriate document that indicates their caste membership.

In India, anyone can obtain a caste document

So, caste system in India it has not only been preserved and survived to this day, it still works to this day. Moreover, other peoples are also divided into varnas and castes, they simply do not give this social division a name.

Abstract of a series of articles

“They go to Parvat, to their buta, during Lent. Here is their Jerusalem; What is Mecca for the Besermen, Jerusalem for the Russians, is Parvat for the Hindus. And they all come naked, only a bandage on their hips, and the women are all naked, only a veil on their hips, and the others are all in veils, and there are a lot of pearls on their necks, and yahonts, and gold bracelets and rings on their hands. (By God!) And inside, to the butkhana, they ride on bulls, the horns of each bull are bound with copper, and there are three hundred bells on its neck and its hooves are shod with copper. And they call the bulls achche.” This is what the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote in the year 6983 (1475). Has anything changed there, across the three seas, over the past five hundred and thirty years?

Why were representatives of the Brahmanical varna Nehru respected and revered in Indian society, but when only daughter famous politician Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira, got ready to marry Feroz Gandhi, the indignation of society knew no bounds. The point is not that Feroz was a journalist (also, by the way, very famous and respected) - he came from fire-worshipping Zoroastrians. For such a misalliance, Indira could freely be stoned in any Indian traditional village.

We all come from childhood, and Indians come from the childhood of civilization. Much has been preserved to this day almost unchanged. The caste system of society, for example. By the way, “varna” (“caste”) is translated from Sanskrit as “color”. Representatives of the lower caste Shudras are descendants of blacks. Brahma, the highest god, released the Brahmins from his mouth, the Kshatriyas (warriors and the highest officials in the state hierarchy) from his hands, the Vaishyas (farmers) from his thighs, and the “lower” Shudras emerged from the feet of the forefather deity. To this day, the feet are considered a very “dirty” place of the body, hence the Indians’ gesture of maximum respect: touching the feet in a low bow. Like, I respect you so much, I honor you so much that even the dirt from your sandals makes me happy. What we are accustomed to school days we call castes (4 main classes), canonically are varnas (“color differentiation” of parts of the body of the creator god).

However, in addition to varnas, in Indian society there are jatis, that is, divisions established on professional grounds. They exist, as it were, within the four main varnas. There are jatis of thieves and robbers (kallar, korava, maravar), priests (jangam, kurukkal, pandaram, pujari), carpenters, potters, washermen (male laundresses). Indian jatis are very close in meaning to medieval European guilds. In India, jati are also inherited, and the transition from one jati to another is extremely difficult, which is what the Indian stories are based on. fiction and Bollywood tear-jerking film masterpieces.

I must say, this is quite typical for such a heavily overpopulated country. However, no matter how you classify them, you can’t keep track of everyone - someone is bound to eat something forbidden or mess up their marriage. If a food sin can be mitigated by a cleansing ritual prescribed for the occasion, then with an inappropriate marriage everything is much more serious. In the Indian national epic Mahabharata, an interesting theory was put forward about the origin of so many jatis. Men should marry only women of their varna, or the one immediately following it, otherwise troubles would begin. An anuloma marriage - when the mother is two varnas lower than the father - sent the offspring no longer to the father's varna, but to the mother's varna. If a man married a woman of a higher varna - a pratiloma marriage - children were completely eliminated from the varna system. This is how the notorious untouchables arose, which also have significant gradations within themselves, since there is a reverse cause-and-effect relationship: the higher the origin of the mother, the lower the status of the untouchable child.

The jati system is carefully guarded by caste councils (khap panchayats), mixing varnas is a crime from the point of view of customs and often leads to real crimes - the murders of those young people who got married or simply fell in love with each other, despite the fact that they belong to different jati. Indeed, representatives of the Brahmanical varna Nehru were respected and revered in Indian society, but when the only daughter of the famous politician Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira, got ready to marry Feroz Gandhi, the indignation of society knew no bounds.

The point is not that Feroz was a journalist (also, by the way, very famous and respected) - he came from fire-worshipping Zoroastrians. For such a misalliance, Indira could freely be stoned in any Indian traditional village.

So the caste-jatiya realities in India have to be taken seriously. My friend, an officer with a very difficult fate, disappeared from view for two years and just recently finally appeared. A man lived for himself, served his homeland, pulled the household cart - but suddenly he took it and went to become a sathu wanderer. He lived Buddhism seriously - hence this extraordinary decision. Visited Tibet, wandered around Hindustan and Indochina. He talked about realities and ups and downs with his characteristic humor. Any fresh tourist (he is distinguished by the lack of a specific Indian tan) is immediately attacked by crowds of aborigines (and, in strict accordance with belonging to the jati, the division of spheres of influence is such). Half of the attackers will drag you to the nearest "tourist office". The owner of the establishment will try to sell you train, bus or air tickets at a price three to five times more expensive than they really cost. Then he will offer souvenirs, then drugs, a girl, himself, a course of Indian head massage, sing, dance, and finally he will ask you for money for poverty. Here and there, beggars, women with children, children without women, cripples, as well as fully able-bodied men will follow you and explain with gestures that they are hungry. If you give it to just one applicant, the rest will become even more annoying. So you shouldn't pay attention to them. If they start grabbing your hands, put your palm forward and the phrase “Bass.” Chilo! (“I’m tired of it. Go!”)” help. Under no circumstances should you be angry. Beggars react to strong emotions like piranhas to blood. It’s easy to turn off uninvited guides and numerous petitioners - with a decisively said “No!” enough. English doesn’t help - switch to Hindi: “Chil o!” (“Fuck you!” - neutral), but for “Chill o Pakistan!” You can get pretty nasty. So it is better not to mention Pakistan, even in extreme irritation. And you certainly shouldn’t say “Jab(v)a!”, “Abu jab(v)a!” (“Get out!”) - it’s hard to inflict a worse insult. Here they won’t remember whether they are inferior or completely untouchable - hurry up and run away.

By the way, in connection with this humorous story, I remembered an interesting fragment from Lev Gumilyov’s work “Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth.”

The fact is that when in our 20th century large trading cities such as Bombay grew up, and this is a city with several million inhabitants, then the untouchables, who alone could clean the streets, be street cleaners (no other Hindu, under threat of exclusion from the caste, will not pick up a broom), increased the price of their labor. And the British and the Englishwomen who lived there could not even wipe off the dust in their own houses, otherwise all the Indians would begin to despise them and might rebel. Therefore, we had to hire some low-caste Hindu woman who would come, wipe off the dust and take half of her husband’s salary for it. Subsequently, these untouchables staged a strike of sweepers and cleaners throughout Bombay, and not a single strikebreaker!.. And how could they not win the strike? They had the best lawyers. They selected talented boys from their caste and sent them to England, to Oxford and Cambridge. They graduated from law faculties, became lawyers, returned and very effectively defended the interests of their caste in the courts. As paradoxical as it may sound, being a member of a lower caste turned out to be, in some sense, even beneficial. And the income, and the work is tireless, and, moreover, there is no competition. So the new stereotype of behavior turned out to be extremely resilient - from the 7th-8th centuries. (when it was established) survived until the 20th century.

However, the attitude towards representatives of the lowest of the Shudras - the untouchables - turned out to be just as resilient. One of the particularly large caste groups in India is formed by many different endogamous castes of tanners, called by the common name “Chamars” (jati dhor, chamar, chambhar, mahar and many others). Chamars skin animals and clean the skeleton, tan leather, make shoes , leather utensils, belts and other crafts. For upper caste Hindus, live cattle are the most sacred animals, dead cattle are the most polluting. Therefore, one of the least prestigious caste occupations is cleaning up the remains of dead livestock. The Chamars have developed a reputation as carrion eaters, although they now usually claim that they have recently abandoned this practice in favor of higher status. Like, we have parted with our previous delusions, don’t judge them harshly.

Garbage, slop and feces collectors (bhangi, chandal, churkha, etc.) are the most “defiled” group of castes, located at the very bottom of the Hindu hierarchy. The scavengers will also sing to anyone willing to listen a “fecal jalis” song about how they come from very high castes, but at some point were accidentally desecrated, like, unfazed looked around. Or even - deliberately, they say, some ill-wishers sent an untouchable, disguised as a brahman, and I, supposedly, out of the simplicity of my soul, showed him inappropriate respect, thereby irrevocably getting dirty and damaging my own karma. I suffer innocently, they say, for my sincerity. (Purely like domestic homeless people, all of them in the past were “major bosses, talented unrecognized poets, artists, actors”, whom the villainous fate threw to the very bottom). In addition to the untouchables, there are also the untouchables and the irrespective - this division is generally beyond the boundaries of good and evil.

It is believed that even the wind blowing from the direction of someone who is not approachable defiles a representative of the highest varna. The unseen are ordered to appear on the street only at night, or literally move in short dashes without taking their eyes off the ground, since these poor fellows supposedly have a desecrating gaze. In short, humanity has been fairly successful in only one thing - in the matter of mocking one's neighbor. And the neighbor, relegated to the margins of existence, is ready to repay adequately to the first person he comes across.

In general, tourists in India should not flapping their ears too much. How not to wander around at night, so pumped up on alcohol that your ears are spitting. Local thieving and fraudulent jatis have become adept at swindling reckless revelers very quickly and fruitfully (for themselves and their loved ones, of course). Not without divine supervision, from their point of view, of course. Indian “gentlemen of fortune” consider the “Heffalump” as their patron, the god of thieves’ luck, and will not go to work without offering prayers to Ganesha and scratching the divine belly. The marginalized are especially criminalized in Goa. If in the vicinity of Delhi tourists can count on prompt assistance from the police, then in the state of Goa the local “laws of the jungle” outweigh the declared legislation. In order for a crime committed against a foreigner to be properly recorded in police reports, one has to go through tantalum torture:

they “don’t understand” the tourist, the testimony is written down in local dialects, and the translator has disappeared somewhere, “he’s about to come” (but either you’ll be tormented by the wait, or you won’t get guarantees that they translated to you exactly what your testimony contains on paper) . Why be surprised - tourists for poor aborigines (and the police are no exception) seem to be rich, careless bums, literally walking bags of bucks. Even if a criminal case is formally accepted for proceedings, one cannot count on its actual disclosure. In this life, at least.

One can talk endlessly about India, its past and present. For India is a book without end and beginning, everyone opens it on their own page and reads as best they can. Someone finds their dream, someone finds happiness, others change their worldview, others change their citizenship. But for some, it is preferable for India to remain an eternal fairy tale, an untouched vessel of universal wisdom, a genie slumbering over mountains of treasures. For me, for example, let my precious pearl lie in obscurity and inviolability, where there are no tourists, false sadhus and caste-oriented policemen.

To be continued

Dravidians- the Sanskrit name for a large group of Indian tribes, representing in physical structure and language a race completely different from the Aryan Hindus. Descendants of the original inhabitants of India, pushed to the south by the Aryans who came from the northwest about 4,000 years ago, the Dravidians remained mainly in the Deccan and in the mountains of northern India. The population of Ceylon also belongs to the Dravidian race. The Brahuis living in Balochistan are also related to the Dravidians. The most pure Dravidian type was preserved in the pastoral Toda tribe: dark, almost black skin color, Roman nose, large black eyes, thick black curly hair, strong physique. Ethnologically, the Dravidians are divided into 3 groups: the Munda tribes, or Mundari, which include the Kol tribes, or Kolarians, the semi-wild population of Chota Nagpur, then the Dravidian tribes themselves and the Sinhalese. The total number of Dravidians is about 50 million.

Ganesha(“Chief of the Retinue”) - the son of Shiva and Parvati, the god of luck and entrepreneurship, the head of his father’s retinue (the retinue consists of gods of the lower rank). Ganesha is depicted as a teenager with four arms and a head similar to that of an elephant. This is the only god in Hinduism who has a trunk instead of a nose. Hindus strive to have a sculpture of Ganesha at home. They do not start any business without praying to Ganesha. And in order to especially please Ganesha, they scratch his belly in the morning.

Literature:

1. Kutsenkov A.A., Evolution of Indian castes. M., 1983
2. Bongard-Levin G.M., Ilyin G.F. India in ancient times. M., 1985

Additional information for the series of articles

Kuchipudi: a dance that has become the quintessence of Indian cultural heritage

A series of articles about India on the pages of the World Travel Encyclopedia is sponsored by the Moscow Kuchipudi Center, whose leaders are Padma Puttu and Alexey Fedorov. Together with the Encyclopedia, the Kuchipudi Center begins new project- . We start the project with ancient india, the culture and magic of whose attraction has always found a response in Russia. Child psychologists, neurologists, speech therapists and simply advanced teachers have long noticed that performing hastas and mudras, techniques of classical Indian dance, has a colossal psychophysical effect.

The so-called “finger games” contribute to the development of children’s speech and intelligence. Doctors use hastas and mudras to stimulate acupuncture points located on the fingers - and successfully treat vascular diseases, and restore patients even after severe strokes. And Hindus firmly believe that hastas and mudras activate the “ajna chakra” - the “third eye of Shiva.” Respectable ladies believe that Indian dance classes will restore their almost lost elegance and attractiveness. Young women are attracted to the exotic. Active and cheerful optimists are frightened by the ascetic work of yoga, but dance, on the contrary, attracts uncontrollably. And it gives no less to the body and spirit than the practice of yoga. Perhaps even more.

Kuchipudi is an ancient sacred art of temple dance, significantly enriched and changed thanks to the guru Vempati Chinna Satyam.

Vempatti Chinna Satyam was born in the village of Kuchelapuram in 1929. Nine generations of his Brahmin ancestors dedicated their lives to Kuchipudi. He became a student of the legendary Vedantam Lakshmi Narayan Sastri and adopted the ideas of innovation from him. At the age of 18, Vempatti went to the cultural center of South India - Madras. The path to recognition was long and difficult, but in 1963 the guru founded the Kuchipudi Art Academy and trained more than 1000 students. Among them are such legendary dancers as Vyjanthimala, Yamini Krishnamurti, Manju Bagavi, Shobha Naidu, Hemma Malini, Kamadev and others.

Vempatti Chinna Satyam has given about 3,000 concerts in India and abroad, composed about 180 solo dances and staged 17 dance dramas. In addition, he systematized Kuchipudi and gave it a more perfect form without compromising the pristine purity of the dance.

The goal of yogic practices is personal change and improvement. The task of a Kuchipudi performer is not just to merge with higher powers and the energies of the Universe, but also to involve your viewers in this divine action.

The psychotherapeutic effect of kuchipudi is not a myth. Having once become a spectator of the sacred rite, a person experiences an extraordinary uplift of spirit and a significant improvement in health. That’s why there are no empty seats in the auditorium during Padma’s performances. And each event ends with the appearance of new Kuchipudi fans who want to find harmony in the soul, family, favorite business, and at the same time comprehend the art of being a Woman worthy of divine attention. Skeptics may lazily chuckle through their lips - they say, tell your fairy tales to gullible fools!

I ran to class, swiveled my hips - and you have success in life in a golden crispy package. If only it were that simple. And the skeptics will be absolutely right - with this approach success is not guaranteed, because our hypothetical skeptic has seen enough of pop dancing and, paradoxically, made an almost correct conclusion. Indian pop music and film dance, as its variant, are echoes of the rule of the Great Mughals, when the deepest religious and ethical philosophy of dance was not needed in the luxurious palaces of Muslim feudal lords, the main thing (just like the new Russians, “to make it beautiful”). Now say the word “yoga” to ten ladies - at least half will wrinkle their noses in disgust - ewww, tantra-mantras, tediousness... But say “kuchipudi” - the same, at least half will say with interest “from now on, more details, please.” To go into more detail, go to the guru. And to understand the essence of the process, we can say this: Kuchipudi is not just an elegant, mesmerizing spectacle that amazes the stage, Kuchipudi is yoga, history, theater, philosophy and physical health in one bottle.

At the end of July, a 14-year-old untouchable, held in sexual slavery by a neighbor for a month, died in a hospital ward in New Delhi. The dying woman told the police that the kidnapper threatened her with a knife, forced her to drink juice mixed with acid, did not feed her, and, together with his friends, raped her several times a day. As law enforcement officers found out, this was the second kidnapping - the previous one was committed by the same person in December last year, but he was released on bail. According to local media, the court showed such leniency towards the criminal because his victim was a Dalit (untouchable), which means her life and freedom were worth nothing. Although discrimination based on caste is prohibited in India, Dalits are still the poorest, most disadvantaged and most uneducated section of society. Why this is so and how far up the social ladder the untouchables can rise - Lenta.ru explains.

How did the untouchables appear?

According to the most common version, these are descendants of representatives of tribes who lived in India before the Aryan invasion. In the traditional Aryan system of society, consisting of four varnas - Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders and artisans) and Shudras (wage earners) - Dalits were at the very bottom, below the Shudras, who were also descendants of the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India . At the same time, in India itself there is a widespread version that arose back in the 19th century, according to which the untouchables are the descendants of children expelled to the forests, born from the relationship of a Shudra man and a Brahmin woman.

The oldest Indian literary monument, the Rigveda (compiled in 1700-1100 BC), says that brahmanas originated from the mouth of the proto-man Purusha, kshatriyas from the hands, vaishyas from the thighs, and shudras from the feet. There is no place for untouchables in this picture of the world. The varna system finally took shape between the 7th century BC. and 2nd century AD

It is believed that an untouchable person can defile people from the higher varnas, so their houses and villages were built on the outskirts. The system of ritual restrictions among the untouchables is no less strict than among the brahmanas, although the restrictions themselves are completely different. Untouchables were forbidden to enter restaurants and temples, carry umbrellas and shoes, walk around in shirts and sunglasses, but they were allowed to eat meat - which strict vegetarian Brahmans could not afford.

Is that what they call them in India - “untouchables”?

Now this word has almost fallen into disuse and is considered offensive. The most common name for untouchables is Dalits, “oppressed”, or “oppressed”. Previously, there was also the word “harijans” - “children of God”, which Mahatma Gandhi tried to introduce into use. But it didn’t catch on: Dalits found it as offensive as “untouchables.”

How many Dalits are there in India and how many castes do they have?

Approximately 170 million people - 16.6 percent of the total population. The question of the number of castes is very complex, since Indians themselves almost never use the word “caste”, preferring the more vague concept of “jati”, which includes not only castes in in the usual sense, but also clans and communities, which are often difficult to classify as one or another varna. Moreover, the boundary between caste and sub-caste is often very blurred. We can only say with certainty that we are talking about hundreds of jatis.

Do Dalits still live in poverty? How is it connected social status with economic?

In general, the lower castes are indeed significantly poorer. The bulk of India's poor are Dalits. The average literacy rate in the country is 75 percent, among Dalits it is just over 30. Almost half of Dalit children, according to statistics, drop out of school because of the humiliation they are subjected to there. It is Dalits who make up the bulk of the unemployed; and those who are employed tend to be paid less than members of the upper castes.

Although there are exceptions: there are approximately 30 Dalit millionaires in India. Of course, against the backdrop of 170 million poor people and beggars, this is a drop in the bucket, but with their lives they prove that you can achieve success even as a Dalit. As a rule, these are truly outstanding people: Ashok Khade from the Chamar (tanner) caste, the son of an illiterate poor shoemaker, worked as a docker during the day, and at night he read textbooks to get an engineering degree, and slept under the stairs on the street, since he did not enough money to rent a room. Now his company is doing deals worth hundreds of millions of dollars. This is a typical Dalit success story, a kind of blue dream for millions of underprivileged people.

Have the untouchables ever tried to rebel?

As far as we know, no. Before the colonization of India, this thought could hardly have arisen in our heads: at that time, expulsion from the caste was equivalent to physical death. After colonization, social boundaries began to gradually blur, and after India gained independence, rebellion became meaningless for Dalits - they were provided with all the conditions to achieve their goals through political means.

How deeply submissiveness has become ingrained in the Dalit consciousness can be illustrated by an example given by Russian researchers Felix and Evgenia Yurlov. The Bahujan Samaj Party, which represents the interests of lower castes, organized special training camps for Dalits, in which they learned to “overcome the age-old fear and fear of high-caste Hindus.” Among the exercises was, for example, the following: a stuffed figure of a high-caste Hindu with a mustache and a tilak (dot) on his forehead was installed. The Dalit had to overcome his shyness, approach the scarecrow, cut off his mustache with scissors and erase the tilak.

Is it possible to break out of the untouchables?

It is possible, although not easy. The easiest way is to change religion. A person who converts to Buddhism, Islam or Christianity technically falls out of the caste system. Dalits first began converting to Buddhism in noticeable numbers at the end of the 19th century. Mass conversions are associated with the name of the famous Dalit rights activist Dr. Ambedkar, who converted to Buddhism along with half a million untouchables. The last such mass ceremony took place in Mumbai in 2007 - then 50 thousand people simultaneously became Buddhists.

Dalits prefer to convert to Buddhism. Firstly, Indian nationalists treat this religion better than Islam and Christianity, since it is one of the traditional Indian religions. Secondly, over time, Muslims and Christians developed their own caste divisions, albeit not as clearly expressed as among Hindus.

Is it possible to change caste while remaining Hindu?

There are two options: the first is all kinds of semi-legal or illegal methods. For example, many surnames indicating membership in a particular caste differ by one or two letters. It is enough to be slightly corrupt or charming a clerk in a government office - and, voila, you are already a member of another caste, and sometimes even a varna. It is better, of course, to perform such tricks either in the city, or in combination with moving to another area, where there are not thousands of fellow villagers around who knew your grandfather.

The second option is the “ghar vapasi” procedure, literally “welcome home”. This program is implemented by radical Hindu organizations and aims to convert Indians of other religions to Hinduism. In this case, a person becomes, for example, a Christian, then sprinkles ashes on his head, declaring his desire to perform “ghar vapasi” - and that’s it, he is a Hindu again. If this trick is done outside your home village, you can always claim that you belong to a different caste.

Another question is why do all this. You will not be asked for a caste certificate when applying for a job or when entering a restaurant. In India, over the last century, the caste system has been demolished under the influence of the processes of modernization and globalization. Attitude to to a stranger is based on his behavior. The only thing that can let you down is the surname, which is most often associated with caste (Gandhi - traders, Deshpande - brahmins, Acharis - carpenters, Guptas - vaishyas, Singhs - kshatriyas). But now that anyone can change their last name, everything has become much easier.

How about changing varna without changing caste?

There is a chance that your caste will undergo the process of Sanskritization. In Russian this is called " vertical mobility caste": if a particular caste adopts the traditions and customs of another caste of higher status, there is a chance that sooner or later it will be recognized as a member of a higher varna. For example, a lower caste begins to practice vegetarianism, characteristic of brahmins, dress like brahmins, wear a sacred thread on the wrist and generally position themselves as brahmins, it is possible that sooner or later they will begin to be treated as brahmins.

However, vertical mobility is characteristic mainly of the higher varna castes. Not a single Dalit caste has yet managed to cross the invisible line separating them from the four varnas and become even Shudras. But times are changing.

In general, being a Hindu, you are not required to declare membership in any caste. You can be a casteless Hindu - your right.

Why change the caste in principle?

It all depends on which direction to change - up or down. Increasing your caste status means that others who value caste will treat you with respect. great respect. Downgrading your status, especially to the level of the Dalit caste, will give you a number of real advantages, which is why many representatives of higher castes try to enroll as Dalits.

The fact is that in modern India the authorities are waging a merciless fight against caste discrimination. According to the constitution, any discrimination on the basis of caste is prohibited, and you will even have to pay a fine for asking about caste when hiring.

But the country has a mechanism of positive discrimination. A number of castes and tribes are included in the Scheduled Tribes and Castes (SC/ST) list. Representatives of these castes have certain privileges, which are confirmed by caste certificates. Seats are reserved for Dalits in the civil service and in parliament, their children are admitted free of charge (or for half the fee) to schools, and places in institutes are allocated for them. In short, there is a quota system for Dalits.

It's hard to say whether this is good or bad. The author of these lines met Dalits who were capable of giving a head start to any Brahmin in terms of intelligence and general development - quotas helped them rise from the bottom and get an education. On the other hand, we had to see Dalits going with the flow (first according to quotas for college, then according to the same quotas for the civil service), not interested in anything and not wanting to work. They cannot be fired, so their future is secured until old age and a good pension. Many in India criticize the quota system, many defend it.

So Dalits can be politicians?

How can they? For example, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who was the President of India from 1997 to 2002, was a Dalit. Another example is Mayawati Prabhu Das, also known as the Iron Lady Mayawati, who served as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh for a total of eight years.

Are the number of Dalits the same in all states of India?

No, it varies, and quite significantly. The largest number of Dalits live in the state of Uttar Pradesh (20.5 percent of all Dalits in India), followed by West Bengal (10.7 percent). At the same time, as a percentage of general population Punjab leads with 31.9 percent, followed by Himachal Pradesh with 25.2 percent.

How can Dalits work?

Theoretically, anyone - from the president to the toilet cleaner. Many Dalits act in films and work as fashion models. In cities where caste lines are blurred, there are no restrictions at all; In villages where ancient traditions are strong, Dalits are still engaged in “unclean” work: skinning dead animals, digging graves, prostitution, and so on.

If a child is born as a result of an inter-caste marriage, which caste will he be assigned to?

Traditionally in India, a child was registered as a lower caste. It is now believed that a child inherits his father's caste, except in the state of Kerala, where according to local law, the mother's caste is inherited. This is theoretically possible in other states, but in each individual case it is decided through the courts.

A typical story happened in 2012: then a Kshatriya man married a woman from the Nayak tribe. The boy was registered as a kshatriya, but then his mother, through the court, ensured that the child was registered as a nayak so that he could take advantage of the bonuses provided to disadvantaged tribes.

If I, as a tourist in India, touch a Dalit, will I then be able to shake hands with a Brahmin?

Foreigners in Hinduism are already considered unclean because they are outside the caste system, so they can touch anyone and for whatever reason without desecrating themselves in any way. If a practicing Brahman decides to communicate with you, he will still have to perform purification rituals, so whether you shook the Dalit’s hand before or not is essentially indifferent.

Do they make inter-caste porn with Dalits in India?

Of course they do. Moreover, judging by the number of views on specialized sites, it is very popular.

After leaving the Indus Valley, the Indian Aryans conquered the country along the Ganges and founded many states here, whose population consisted of two classes that differed in legal and financial status.

The new Aryan settlers, the victors, seized land, honor, and power in India, and the defeated non-Indo-European natives were plunged into contempt and humiliation, forced into slavery or into a dependent state, or, driven into the forests and mountains, they lived there in inaction thoughts of a meager life without any culture. This result of the Aryan conquest gave rise to the origin of the four main Indian castes (varnas).

Those original inhabitants of India who were conquered by the power of the sword suffered the fate of captives and became mere slaves. The Indians, who submitted voluntarily, renounced their father's gods, adopted the language, laws and customs of the victors, retained personal freedom, but lost all land property and had to live as workers on the estates of the Aryans, servants and porters, in the houses of rich people. From them came a caste sudra. "Sudra" is not a Sanskrit word. Before becoming the name of one of the Indian castes, it was probably the name of some people. The Aryans considered it beneath their dignity to enter into marriage unions with representatives of the Shudra caste. Shudra women were only concubines among the Aryans.

Ancient India. Map

Over time, sharp differences in status and professions emerged between the Aryan conquerors of India themselves. But in relation to the lower caste - the dark-skinned, conquered native population - they all remained a privileged class. Only the Aryans had the right to read the sacred books; only they were consecrated by a solemn ceremony: a sacred cord was placed on the Aryan, making him “reborn” (or “twice born”, dvija). This ritual served as a symbolic distinction between all Aryans and the Shudra caste and the despised native tribes driven into the forests. Consecration was performed by laying a cord, which is worn laid on right shoulder and descending obliquely across the chest. Among the Brahmin caste, the cord could be placed on a boy from 8 to 15 years old, and it is made of cotton yarn; among the Kshatriya caste, who received it no earlier than the 11th year, it was made from kusha (Indian spinning plant), and among the Vaishya caste, who received it no earlier than the 12th year, it was made of wool.

The "twice-born" Aryans over time were divided according to differences in occupation and origin into three estates or castes, which have some similarities with the three estates of medieval Europe: the clergy, the nobility and the middle, urban class. The beginnings of the caste system among the Aryans existed back in the days when they lived only in the Indus basin: there, from the mass of the agricultural and pastoral population, warlike princes of the tribes, surrounded by people skilled in military affairs, as well as priests who performed sacrificial rites, already stood out.

At the resettlement of Aryan tribes further into India, into the country of the Ganges, militant energy increased in bloody wars with exterminated natives, and then in a fierce struggle between Aryan tribes. Until the conquests were completed, the entire people were busy with military affairs. Only when the peaceful possession of the conquered country began did it become possible for a variety of occupations to develop, the possibility of choosing between different professions arose, and the new stage origin of castes. The fertility of the Indian soil aroused the desire for peaceful means of subsistence. From this, the innate tendency of the Aryans quickly developed, according to which it was more pleasant for them to work quietly and enjoy the fruits of their labor than to make difficult military efforts. Therefore, a significant part of the settlers (“ Vishey") turned to agriculture, which produced abundant harvests, leaving the fight against enemies and the protection of the country to the princes of the tribes and the military nobility formed during the period of conquest. This class, engaged in arable farming and partly shepherding, soon grew so that among the Aryans, as in Western Europe, it formed the vast majority of the population. Because the name vaishya"settler", which originally meant all Aryan inhabitants in new areas, came to mean only people of the third, working Indian caste, and warriors, kshatriyas, and priests, brahmins(“prayers”), who over time became the privileged classes, made the names of their professions the names of the two highest castes.

The four Indian classes listed above became completely closed castes (varnas) only when Brahmanism rose above the ancient service to Indra and other gods of nature - a new religious doctrine about Brahma, the soul of the universe, the source of life from which all beings originated and to which they will return. This reformed creed gave religious sanctity to the division of the Indian nation into castes, and especially the priestly caste. It said that in the cycle of life forms passed through by everything existing on earth, brahman is the highest form of existence. According to the dogma of rebirth and transmigration of souls, a creature born in human form must go through all four castes in turn: to be a Shudra, a Vaishya, a Kshatriya and, finally, a Brahman; having passed through these forms of existence, it is reunited with Brahma. The only way to achieve this goal is for a person, constantly striving for deity, to exactly fulfill everything commanded by the brahmanas, to honor them, to please them with gifts and signs of respect. Offenses against Brahmanas, severely punished on earth, subject the wicked to the most terrible torments of hell and rebirth in the forms of despised animals.

Belief in addiction future life from the present it was the main support of the Indian caste division and the rule of the priests. The more decisively the Brahman clergy placed the dogma of transmigration of souls at the center of all moral teaching, the more successfully it filled the imagination of the people with terrible pictures of hellish torment, the more honor and influence it acquired. Representatives of the highest caste of Brahmins are close to the gods; they know the path leading to Brahma; their prayers, sacrifices, holy feats of their asceticism have magical power over the gods, the gods have to fulfill their will; bliss and suffering in the future life depend on them. It is not surprising that with the development of religiosity among the Indians, the power of the Brahmin caste increased, tirelessly praising in its holy teachings respect and generosity towards the Brahmins as the surest ways to obtain bliss, instilling in the kings that the ruler is obliged to have Brahmins as his advisers and make judges, is obliged to reward their service to the rich contents and pious gifts.

To prevent the lower Indian castes from envying the privileged position of the Brahmans and from encroaching on it, the doctrine was developed and strenuously preached that the forms of life for all beings are predetermined by Brahma, and that the progression through the degrees of human rebirth is accomplished only by calm, peaceful life in the position given to a person, by faithful performance of duties. So, in one of the oldest parts Mahabharata It is said: “When Brahma created beings, he gave them their occupations, each caste a special activity: for the brahmanas - the study of the high Vedas, for the warriors - heroism, for the vaishyas - the art of work, for the sudras - humility before other flowers: therefore ignorant brahmanas, ignominious warriors, unskillful vaishyas and disobedient sudras.”

Brahma, the main deity of Brahmanism - the religion that underlies the Indian caste system

This dogma, which attributed divine origin to every caste, every profession, consoled the humiliated and despised in the insults and deprivations of their present life with the hope of an improvement in their lot in a future existence. He gave religious sanctification to the Indian caste hierarchy. The division of people into four classes, unequal in their rights, was from this point of view an eternal, unchangeable law, the violation of which is the most criminal sin. People do not have the right to overthrow the caste barriers established between them by God himself; They can achieve improvement in their fate only through patient submission. The mutual relations between the Indian castes were clearly characterized by the teaching; that Brahma produced the Brahmanas from his mouth (or the first man Purusha), the Kshatriyas from his hands, the Vaishyas from his thighs, the Shudras from his feet dirty in mud, therefore the essence of nature for the Brahmanas is “holiness and wisdom”, for the Kshatriyas it is “power and strength”, among the Vaishyas - “wealth and profit”, among the Shudras - “service and obedience”. The doctrine of the origin of castes from different parts the highest being is set forth in one of the hymns of the latest, newest book Rigveda. There are no concepts of caste in the older songs of the Rig Veda. Brahmins attach extreme importance to this hymn, and every true believer Brahmin recites it every morning after bathing. This hymn is the diploma with which the Brahmins legitimized their privileges, their dominion.

Thus, the Indian people were led by their history, their inclinations and customs to fall under the yoke of a hierarchy of castes, which turned classes and professions into tribes alien to each other,

Shudras

After the conquest of the Ganges valley by the Aryan tribes who came from the Indus, part of its original (non-Indo-European) population was enslaved, and the rest were deprived of their lands, turning into servants and farm laborers. From these natives, alien to the Aryan invaders, the “Sudra” caste little by little formed. The word "sudra" does not come from a Sanskrit root. It may have been some kind of local Indian tribal designation.

The Aryans assumed the role of a higher class in relation to the Shudras. Only performed on arias religious rite the laying of a sacred thread, which, according to the teachings of Brahmanism, made a person “twice-born.” But even among the Aryans themselves, social division soon appeared. By type of life and occupation, they fell into three castes - Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, reminiscent of the three main classes of the medieval West: the clergy, the military aristocracy and the class of small property owners. This social stratification began to appear among the Aryans even during their life on the Indus.

After the conquest of the Ganges Valley, most of the Aryan population took up farming and cattle breeding in the new fertile country. These people formed a caste Vaishyas(“villagers”), who earned their means of living by labor, but, unlike the Shudras, consisted of legally entitled owners of land, livestock or industrial and commercial capital. There were warriors above the Vaishyas ( kshatriyas), and priests ( brahmins,"prayers") Kshatriyas and especially Brahmins were considered the highest castes.

Vaishya

Vaishyas, farmers and shepherds of Ancient India, by the very nature of their occupations, could not equal the neatness of the upper classes and were not so well dressed. Spending the day in labor, they had no leisure either for acquiring Brahmin education or for the idle pursuits of the Kshatriya military nobility. Therefore, Vaishyas soon began to be considered people unequal to priests and warriors, people of a different caste. Vaishya commoners did not have warlike neighbors who would threaten their property. The Vaishyas did not need sword and arrows; they lived quietly with their wives and children on their piece of land, leaving the military class to protect the country from external enemies and from internal unrest. In the affairs of the world, most of the recent Aryan conquerors of India soon became unaccustomed to weapons and the art of war.

When, with the development of culture, the forms and needs of life became more diverse, when the rustic simplicity of clothing and food, housing and household utensils began to not satisfy many, when trade with foreigners began to bring wealth and luxury, many Vaishyas turned to crafts, industry, trade, giving money back as interest. But this did not increase their social prestige. Just as in feudal Europe the townspeople did not belong to the upper classes by origin, but to the common people, so in the populous cities that arose in India near the royal and princely palaces, the majority of the population were Vaishyas. But they did not have room for independent development: artisans and traders in India were subject to the contempt of the upper classes. No matter how much wealth the Vaishyas acquired in large, magnificent, luxurious capitals or in commercial seaside cities, they did not receive any participation either in the honors and glory of the Kshatriyas, or in the education and authority of the Brahman priests and scholars. The highest moral benefits of life were inaccessible to vaishyas. They were given only the circle of physical and mechanical activity, the circle of material and routine; and although they were allowed, even obliged to read Veda and legal books, they remained outside the highest mental life of the nation. The hereditary chain chained the Vaishya to his father's plot of land or business; access to the military class or to the Brahman caste was forever blocked.

Kshatriyas

The position of the warrior caste (kshatriyas) was more honorable, especially in iron times Aryan conquest of India and the first generations after this conquest, when everything was decided by the sword and warlike energy, when the king was only a commander, when law and custom were maintained only by the protection of weapons. There was a time when the Kshatriyas aspired to become the foremost class, and in dark legends there were still traces of memories of the great war between warriors and Brahmins, when “unholy hands” dared to touch the sacred, divinely established greatness of the clergy. Traditions say that the Brahmins emerged victorious from this struggle with the Kshatriyas with the help of the gods and the Brahmin hero, Frames, and that the wicked were subjected to the most terrible punishments.

Education of a Kshatriya

Times of conquest were to be followed by times of peace; then the services of the kshatriyas became unnecessary, and the importance of the military class decreased. These times were favorable to the desire of the Brahmans to become the first class. But the more firmly and resolutely the warriors held on to the rank of the second most honorable class. Proud of the glory of their ancestors, whose exploits were praised in heroic songs, inherited from antiquity, imbued with the sense of self-esteem and consciousness of their strength that the military profession gives people, the kshatriyas kept themselves in strict isolation from the vaishyas, who had no noble ancestors, and looked with contempt at their working, monotonous life.

The Brahmans, having strengthened their primacy over the Kshatriyas, favored their class isolation, finding it beneficial for themselves; and the kshatriyas, along with lands and privileges, family pride and military glory, inherited respect for the clergy to their sons. Separated by their upbringing, military exercises and way of life from both the Brahmans and the Vaishyas, the Kshatriyas were a knightly aristocracy, preserving, under the new conditions of social life, the warlike customs of antiquity, instilling in their children a proud belief in the purity of blood and in tribal superiority. Protected by hereditary rights and class isolation from the invasion of alien elements, the kshatriyas formed a phalanx that did not allow commoners into their ranks.

Receiving a generous salary from the king, supplied from him with weapons and everything necessary for military affairs, the kshatriyas led a carefree life. Apart from military exercises, they had no business; because in peacetime - and in the calm valley of the Ganges time passed for the most part peacefully - they had a lot of leisure to have fun and feast. In the circle of these families, the memory of the glorious deeds of their ancestors, of the hot battles of antiquity was preserved; singers of kings and noble families sang old songs to the kshatriyas at sacrificial festivals and funeral dinners, or composed new ones to glorify their patrons. From these songs gradually grew Indian epic poems - Mahabharata And Ramayana.

The highest and most influential caste were the priests, whose original name “purohita”, “household priests” of the king, was replaced in the country of the Ganges by a new one - brahmins. Even on the Indus there were such priests, for example, Vasishtha, Vishwamitra- about whom the people believed that their prayers and the sacrifices they performed had power, and who therefore enjoyed special respect. The benefit of the entire tribe demanded that their sacred songs, their ways of performing rituals, their teachings be preserved. The surest way to achieve this was for the most respected priests of the tribe to pass on their knowledge to their sons or students. This is how the Brahman clans arose. Forming schools or corporations, they preserved prayers, hymns, and sacred knowledge through oral tradition.

At first each Aryan tribe had its own Brahman clan; for example, the Koshalas have the family of Vasishtha, and the Angs have the family of Gautama. But when the tribes, accustomed to living in peace with each other, united into one state, their priestly families entered into partnership with each other, borrowing prayers and hymns from each other. The creeds and sacred songs of various Brahmin schools became the common property of the entire community. These songs and teachings, which at first existed only in oral tradition, were, after the introduction of written signs, recorded and collected by the Brahmins. This is how they arose Veda, that is, “knowledge”, a collection of sacred songs and invocations of the gods, called Rigveda and the following two collections of sacrificial formulas, prayers and liturgical regulations, Samaveda And Yajurveda.

The Indians placed great importance on ensuring that sacrificial offerings were performed correctly and that no mistakes were made in invoking the gods. This greatly favored the emergence of a special Brahmana corporation. When liturgical rites and prayers were written down, the condition for the sacrifices and rituals to be pleasing to the gods was the exact knowledge and observance of the prescribed rules and laws, which could only be studied under the guidance of the old priestly families. This necessarily placed the performance of sacrifices and worship under the exclusive control of the brahmans, completely ending the direct relationship of the laity to the gods: only those who were taught by the priest-mentor - the son or pupil of a brahman - could now perform the sacrifice in the proper way, making it “pleasing to the gods.” ; only he could deliver God's help.

Brahman in modern India

The knowledge of the old songs with which the ancestors in their former homeland honored the gods of nature, the knowledge of the rituals that accompanied these songs, increasingly became the exclusive property of the Brahmans, whose forefathers composed these songs and in whose clan they were passed down by inheritance. The property of the priests also remained the legends connected with the divine service, necessary for understanding it. What was brought from their homeland was clothed in the minds of the Aryan settlers in India as mysterious sacred meaning. Thus, the hereditary singers became hereditary priests, whose importance increased as the Aryan people moved away from their old homeland (the Indus Valley) and, occupied with military affairs, forgot their old institutions.

The people began to consider the Brahmins as intermediaries between people and gods. When peaceful times began in the new country of the Ganges, and concern for the fulfillment of religious duties became the most important matter of life, the concept established among the people about the importance of the priests should have aroused in them the proud thought that the class that performs the most sacred duties, spending its life in the service of the gods, has the right to occupy first place in society and the state. The Brahman clergy became a closed corporation, access to it was closed to people of other classes. Brahmins were supposed to take wives only from their own class. They taught the whole people to recognize that the sons of a priest, born in a legal marriage, have by their very origin the right to be priests and the ability to make sacrifices and prayers pleasing to the gods.

This is how the priestly, Brahman caste arose, strictly separated from the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, placed by the strength of its class pride and the religiosity of the people at the highest level of honor, seizing science, religion, and all education into a monopoly for itself. Over time, the Brahmans became accustomed to thinking that they were as superior to the rest of the Aryans as they considered themselves to be superior to the Shudras and the remnants of the wild native Indian tribes. On the street, in the market, the difference in castes was already visible in the material and shape of clothing, in the size and shape of the cane. A brahmana, unlike a kshatriya and a vaishya, left the house with nothing less than a bamboo cane, a vessel of water for purification, and a sacred cord over his shoulder.

The Brahmins tried their best to put into practice the theory of castes. But the conditions of reality confronted their aspirations with such obstacles that they could not strictly implement the principle of division of occupations between castes. It was especially difficult for the Brahmins to find a means of living for themselves and their families, limiting themselves only to those occupations that specifically belonged to their caste. Brahmans were not monks who took into their class only as many people as needed. They led family life and multiplied; therefore it was inevitable that many Brahman families became poor; and the Brahman caste did not receive support from the state. Therefore, the impoverished Brahman families fell into poverty. The Mahabharata states that two prominent heroes of this poem, Drona and his son Ashwatthaman, there were brahmins, but due to poverty they had to take up the military craft of the kshatriyas. In later inserts they are strongly condemned for this.

True, some Brahmins led an ascetic and hermit life in the forest, in the mountains, and near sacred lakes. Others were astronomers, lawyers, administrators, judges, and received a good living from these honorable occupations. Many Brahmins were religious teachers, interpreters holy books, and received support from their many disciples, were priests, servants at temples, lived on gifts from those who made sacrifices and in general from pious people. But whatever the number of Brahmanas who found their means of living in these pursuits, we see from laws of Manu and from other ancient Indian sources that there were many priests who lived only on alms or supported themselves and their families with activities inappropriate for their caste. Therefore, the laws of Manu take great care to instill in kings and rich people that they have a sacred duty to be generous to the Brahmanas. The laws of Manu allow brahmanas to beg for alms and allow them to earn their living by the activities of kshatriyas and vaishyas. A Brahman can support himself by farming and shepherding; can live "by the truth and lies of trade." But in no case should he live by lending money on interest or by seductive arts, such as music and singing; should not be hired as workers, should not trade in intoxicating drinks, cow butter, milk, sesame seeds, linen or woolen fabrics. Those kshatriyas who cannot support themselves by military craft, the law of Manu also allows them to engage in the affairs of the vaishyas, and it allows the vaishyas to feed themselves by the activities of the sudras. But all these were only concessions forced by necessity.

The discrepancy between the occupations of people and their castes led over time to the disintegration of castes into smaller divisions. Actually, it is these small social groups that are castes in the proper sense of the word, and the four main classes we have listed - brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras - in India itself are more often called varnas. While leniently allowing the higher castes to feed on the professions of the lower ones, the laws of Manu strictly forbid the lower castes from taking up the professions of the higher ones: this insolence was supposed to be punished by confiscation of property and expulsion. Only a Shudra who does not find hired work can engage in a craft. But he should not acquire wealth, so as not to become arrogant against people of other castes, before whom he is obliged to humble himself.

Untouchable caste - Chandals

From the Ganges basin, this contempt for the surviving tribes of the non-Aryan population was transferred to the Deccan, where the Chandals on the Ganges were placed in the same position pariahs, whose name is not found in laws of Manu, became among Europeans the name of all classes of people despised by the Aryans, “unclean” people. The word pariah is not Sanskrit but Tamil. Tamils ​​call pariahs both the descendants of the ancient, pre-Dravidian population, and Indians excluded from castes.

Even the situation of slaves in Ancient India was less difficult than the life of the untouchable caste. Epic and dramatic works of Indian poetry show that the Aryans treated slaves meekly, that many slaves enjoyed great confidence from their masters and occupied influential positions. The slaves were: those members of the Shudra caste whose ancestors were enslaved during the conquest of the country; Indian prisoners of war from enemy states; people bought from traders; faulty debtors handed over by judges as slaves to creditors. Males and female slaves were sold on the market as goods. But no one could have as a slave a person from a caste higher than his own.

Having emerged in ancient times, the untouchable caste exists in India to this day.

Caste is the original civilizational model,
built on its own conscious principles.
L. Dumont “Homo Hierarchicus”

The social structure of the modern Indian state is unique in many ways, primarily due to the fact that, like several thousand years ago, it is still based on the existence of a caste system, which is one of its main components.

The word “caste” itself appeared later than the social stratification of ancient Indian society began. Initially the term "varna" was used. The word "varna" is of Indian origin and means color, mode, essence. In the later laws of Manu, instead of the word “varna”, the word “jati” was sometimes used, meaning birth, gender, position. Subsequently, in the process of economic and social development, each varna was divided into big number castes, in modern India there are thousands of them. Contrary to popular belief, the caste system in India has not been abolished, but still exists; Only discrimination on the basis of caste is abolished by law.

Varna

In ancient India there were four main varnas (chaturvarnya), or classes. The highest varna - brahmans - are priests, clergy; their duties included studying sacred texts, teaching people and performing religious rituals, since they were the ones who were considered to have the proper holiness and purity.

The next varna is the kshatriyas; these are warriors and rulers who had the necessary qualities (for example, courage and strength) to govern and protect the state.

They are followed by Vaishyas (merchants and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers). The attitude to the last, fourth varna is told in the ancient legend about the creation of the world, which says that at first three varnas were created by God - brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas, and later people (praja) and cattle were born.

The first three varnas were considered the highest, and their representatives were “twice-born”. The physical, “first” birth was only a door to this earthly world, however, for internal growth and spiritual development, a person had to be born a second time - anew. This meant that representatives of privileged varnas underwent a special rite - initiation (upanayana), after which they became full members of society and could learn the profession that they inherited from representatives of their clan. During the ritual, a cord of a certain color and material, prescribed in accordance with the tradition of this varna, was placed around the neck of a representative of a given varna.

It was believed that all varnas were created from the body of the first man - Purusha: brahmanas - from his mouth (the color of this varna is white), kshatriyas - from his hands (the color is red), vaishyas - from the thighs (the color of varna is yellow), shudras - from his feet (black color).

The “pragmatism” of such a class division lay in the fact that initially, as is assumed, a person’s assignment to a certain varna occurred as a result of his natural inclinations and inclinations. For example, a brahmana became one who could think with his head (therefore the symbol is the mouth of Purusha), who himself had the ability to learn and could teach others. A Kshatriya is a person with a warlike nature, more inclined to work with his hands (that is, to fight, therefore the symbol is the hands of Purusha), etc.

Shudras were the lowest varna, they could not participate in religious rituals and study the sacred texts of Hinduism (Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmins and Aranyakas), they often did not have their own household, and they were engaged in the most difficult types of labor. Their duty was unconditional obedience to the representatives of the higher varnas. The Shudras remained “once-born,” that is, they did not have the privilege of rebirth to a new, spiritual life (probably because their level of consciousness was not ready for this).

Varnas were absolutely autonomous, marriages could only take place within a varna, the mixing of varnas, according to the ancient laws of Manu, was not allowed, as well as the transition from one varna to another - higher or lower. So tough hierarchical structure was not only protected by laws and tradition, but was directly connected with the key idea of ​​the Indian religion - the idea of ​​​​reincarnation: “As childhood, youth and old age come to the embodied here, so does a new body come: the sage cannot be puzzled by this” (Bhagavad Gita).

It was believed that being in a certain varna is a consequence of karma, that is, the cumulative result of one’s actions and deeds in past lives. The better a person behaved in past lives, the more chances he had to incarnate in a higher varna in his next life. After all, varna affiliation was given by birth and could not change throughout a person’s life. This may seem strange to a modern Westerner, but such a concept, completely dominant in India for several millennia until today, created, on the one hand, the basis for the political stability of society, on the other, it was a moral code for huge sections of the population.

Therefore, the fact that the varna structure is invisibly present in the life of modern India (the caste system is officially enshrined in the main law of the country) is most likely directly related to the strength of religious convictions and beliefs that have stood the test of time and have remained almost unchanged to this day.

But is the secret of the “survivability” of the varna system only in the power of religious ideas? Perhaps ancient India managed to somewhat anticipate the structure of modern societies, and it is no coincidence that L. Dumont calls castes a civilizational model?

A modern interpretation of the varna division might look, for example, like this.

Brahmins are people of knowledge, those who receive knowledge, teach it and develop new knowledge. Since in modern “knowledge” societies (a term officially adopted by UNESCO), which have already replaced information societies, not only information, but knowledge is gradually becoming the most valuable capital, surpassing all material analogues, it becomes clear that people of knowledge belong to the highest strata of society .

Kshatriyas are people of duty, senior managers, government-level administrators, military personnel and representatives of the “security agencies” - those who guarantee law and order and serve their people and their country.

Vaishyas are people of action, businessmen, creators and organizers of their business, whose main goal is to make a profit; they create a product that is in demand in the market. Vaishyas now, just like in ancient times, “feed” other varnas, creating the material basis for the economic growth of the state.

Shudras are people for hire, hired workers, for whom it is easier not to take responsibility, but to carry out the work assigned to them under the control of management.

Living “in your varna,” from this point of view, means living in accordance with your natural abilities, innate predisposition to a certain type of activity and in accordance with your calling in this life. This can give a feeling of inner peace and satisfaction that a person is living his own, and not someone else’s, life and destiny (dharma). It is not for nothing that the importance of following one’s dharma, or duty, is spoken of in one of the sacred texts included in the Hindu canon - the Bhagavad Gita: “It is better to fulfill one’s duties, even imperfectly, than the duties of others perfectly. It’s better to die doing your duty; someone else’s path is dangerous.”

In this “cosmic” aspect, the varna division looks like a completely pragmatic system for realizing a kind of “call of the soul”, or, in higher language, fulfilling one’s destiny (duty, mission, task, calling, dharma).

The Untouchables

In ancient India there was a group of people who were not part of any of the varnas - the so-called untouchables, who de facto still exist in India. The emphasis on the actual state of affairs is made because the situation with the untouchables in real life somewhat different from the legal formalization of the caste system in modern India.

The untouchables in ancient India were a special group that performed work associated with the then ideas about ritual impurity, for example, dressing animal skins, collecting garbage, and corpses.

In modern India, the term untouchables is not officially used, as are its analogues: harijan - “children of God” (a concept introduced by Mahatma Gandhi) or pariah (“outcast”) and others. Instead, there is a concept of Dalit, which is not believed to carry the connotation of caste discrimination prohibited in the Indian Constitution. According to the 2001 census, Dalits constitute 16.2% of India's total population and 79.8% of the total rural population.

Although the Indian Constitution has abolished the concept of untouchability, ancient traditions continue to dominate the mass consciousness, which even leads to the killing of untouchables under various pretexts. At the same time, there are cases when a person belonging to a “pure” caste is ostracized for daring to do “dirty” work. Thus, Pinky Rajak, a 22-year-old woman from the caste of Indian washerwomen, who traditionally wash and iron clothes, caused outrage among the elders of her caste because she began cleaning at a local school, that is, she violated the strict caste ban on dirty work, thereby insulting her community.

Castes Today

To protect certain castes from discrimination, there are various privileges given to citizens of lower castes, such as reservation of seats in legislatures and public service, partial or full tuition fees in schools and colleges, quotas in higher educational institutions. In order to avail the right to such a benefit, a citizen belonging to a state-protected caste must obtain and present a special caste certificate - proof of his membership in a particular caste listed in the caste table, which is part of the Constitution of India.

Today in India, belonging to a high caste by birth does not automatically mean high level material security. Often, children from poor families of the upper castes, who enter college or university on a general basis with great competition, have much less chance of getting an education than children from lower castes.

The debate about actual discrimination against upper castes has been going on for many years. There are opinions that in modern India there is a gradual erosion of caste boundaries. Indeed, it is now almost impossible to determine which caste an Indian belongs to (especially in large cities), not only by appearance, but often by the nature of his professional activity.

Creation of national elites

The formation of the structure of the Indian state in the form in which it is presented now (developed democracy, parliamentary republic) began in the 20th century.

In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms were carried out, the main goal of which was the establishment and development of a system of local government. Under the English governor-general, who had previously virtually ruled the Indian colony single-handedly, a bicameral legislative body was created. In all Indian provinces, a system of dual power (diarchy) was created, when both representatives of the English administration and representatives of the local Indian population were in charge. Thus, at the very beginning of the twentieth century, democratic procedures were introduced for the first time on the Asian continent. The British, unwittingly, contributed to the formation of the future independence of India.

After India gained independence, the need arose to attract national personnel to lead the country. Since only the educated sections of Indian society had real opportunity“restart” of public institutions under conditions of independence, it is clear that the leading role in governing the country mainly belonged to the brahmanas and kshatriyas. That is why the unification of the new elites was practically conflict-free, since the brahmins and kshatriyas historically belonged to the highest castes.

Since 1920, the popularity of Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated a united India without the British, began to grow. The Indian National Congress, which he headed, was not so much a party as a national social movement. Gandhi managed to accomplish something that no one had succeeded before - albeit temporarily, but he practically eliminated the conflict of interests between the higher and lower castes.

What tomorrow?

In India in the Middle Ages there were no cities similar to European ones. These cities could rather be called large villages, where time seemed to stand still. Until recently (especially intensive changes began to occur in the last 15–20 years), tourists coming from the West could feel themselves in a medieval atmosphere. Real changes began after independence. The course towards industrialization taken in the second half of the twentieth century caused an increase in the rate of economic growth, which, in turn, led to an increase in the share of the urban population and the emergence of new social groups.

Over the past 15–20 years, many Indian cities have changed beyond recognition. Most of the almost “homey” neighborhoods in the center turned into concrete jungles, and the poor neighborhoods on the outskirts were transformed into residential areas for the middle class.

According to forecasts, by 2028, India's population will exceed 1.5 billion people, the largest percentage of them will be young people and, compared to Western countries, the country will have the largest population labor resources.

Today, in many countries there is a shortage of qualified personnel in the field of medicine, education and IT services. This situation has contributed to the development in India of such a rapidly growing economic sector as the provision of remote services, for example in the United States and Western European countries. The Indian government is now investing heavily in education, especially in schools. You can see with your own eyes how in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas, where 15-20 years ago there were only remote villages, state technological colleges have grown up in large areas, with beautiful buildings and infrastructure, intended for local children from the same villages. The bet on education in the age of “knowledge” societies, especially on school and university education, is a win-win, and it is no coincidence that India occupies one of the leading places in the field of computer technology.

This projection of Indian population growth could be optimistic for India and lead to significant economic growth as well. But growth doesn't happen by itself. It is necessary to create conditions: new jobs, ensuring industrial employment and, no less important, providing qualified training to all this huge mass of human resources. All this is not an easy task and is more of a challenge for the state than a bonus. If not fulfilled necessary conditions There will be mass unemployment, a sharp decline in the living standards of the population and, as a consequence, negative changes in the social structure.

Until now, the existing caste system has been a kind of “fuse” against various kinds of social upheavals throughout the country. However, times are changing, Western technologies are intensively penetrating not only the Indian economy, but into the consciousness and subconscious of the masses, especially in cities, forming a new, non-traditional for many Indians model of desires according to the principle “I want more now.” This model is intended primarily for the so-called middle class (“so-called” because for India its boundaries are blurred and the criteria for membership are not entirely clear). The question of whether the caste system can still serve as a protector against social cataclysms in the new conditions remains open.