Today, several thousand different peoples live in the world, which together form humanity. They differ in the level of social development, numbers, culture, language, racial characteristics. All diversity is the result of a long independent development of peoples, their living in various natural and geographical conditions. But in the course of historical development they had contacts, mixed, exchanged experience.
The cultural appearance was also influenced by the objective laws of social development. All this, together with belonging to a single biological species - Homo sapiens, explains the presence of many common features among the peoples of the planet. Humanity is unity in diversity. Given this, one can understand both the behavior of individuals and the course of historical processes.
In our country and abroad, one can name close to each other sciences that study peoples and their cultures in all the diversity of existence. These are cultural and social anthropology, ethnology, cultural studies, folkloristics, folkskunde and verkelkunde, ethnography, etc. Breaking up into schools and directions, they are united by the proximity of the subject of study. In the USSR, Russia and a number of Eastern European countries, the science of the peoples of the world and their characteristic features was called ethnography , and in recent years the term ethnology . Both names are formed from a combination of Greek words. Accordingly, ethnography is translated literally as « description of people» (ethnos - people, tribe, and grapho - I write). Ethnology may sound like « folk study» (ethnos - people, logos - doctrine, thought). The question of the relationship between these concepts and the content behind them is covered in different ways in various scientific schools. For example, the famous French scientist Claude Levi-Strauss represented ethnography, ethnology and anthropology as three successive stages in the process of scientific knowledge of human culture: ethnography includes field research, classification and description of individual manifestations of culture; ethnology - a theoretical step in the generalization of the material; anthropology, seeking to know man in general, is an entertaining stage of study. All this is "... three stages or three temporal stages of the same phenomenon."
In Russian science, a tradition has developed for understanding ethnography and ethnology as synonyms (along with "ethnology"). Predominant distribution in Russia since the end of the 19th century. received the concept of "ethnography", which equally included both descriptive and theoretical levels of research. The term "ethnology" was used less frequently. In the late 1920s already in Soviet science, under the influence of ideological dogmas, a negative attitude towards ethnology prevailed, which was declared a "bourgeois surrogate for social science." The consequence of this was the replacement of the name "ethnology" by the term "ethnography". In the 70-90s. both concepts were considered by Soviet scientists as equivalent, although it was recognized that the term "ethnology" was more accurate. But due to the established tradition, the science of the peoples of the world was designated as "ethnography". The predominance of this approach continues to this day. Because of this, and also since the above term was used in most of the works of Russian authors, it is preferred in this essay.
So, ethnography (ethnology) is a historical discipline that studies peoples (ethnic groups) and other types of ethnic communities, as well as common features and characteristics of their cultures. Ethnography is associated with many natural and human sciences and, studying a diverse set of problems, is divided into areas (subdisciplines). These are ethnoarchaeology, historical ethnography (paleoethnography), ethnogeography, ethnopsychology, normative ethnography, ethnomedicine, ethnosemiotics, etc. The list can be continued. We only note that the directions arose at the "junction" of sciences and have analogies in scientific schools in other countries. Let's get acquainted with some key concepts and problems of our science.
First of all, let's take a look at the term « ethnos» . It is used in research literature instead of the more familiar name "people". For example: Russian ethnos, Armenian ethnos (for comparison - Russian people, Armenian people). The fact is that the usual “people” has different meanings: it means the population of a country (for example: “the multinational people of Russia”), the ethnic group itself, as well as the working part of the population (for example: “the people rebelled against their enslavers”) , or just a crowd of people (for example: “the streets are full of people”). In scientific terms, the term "ethnos" is more correct. Among the ancient Greeks, it meant "a people, a tribe, a group." They also knew other words for the concept of "people". One of these is "demos", i.e. the people, as the bulk of the population, is reflected in the names we are used to (democracy, demography). It should be noted that the Hellenes themselves, distinguishing themselves from their neighbors, non-Greeks, it was they who were more often called "ethnic groups".
In the scientific literature, this term appears at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, but initially its use was limited. In practical activities, scientists used "tribe", "race", "nation". In the XIX - 1st quarter of the XX century. the words "ethnos", "ethnic" began to be used more often in scientific works, entered the language of science, moreover, theoretical works appeared that considered the signs of an ethnos. On the whole, ethnic problems have not yet been widely disseminated. The situation changed in the 1960s, the term "ethnos" not only firmly entered the scientific lexicon, but is increasingly used in everyday colloquial speech.
What are the historical and cultural realities behind this name? In Russian literature, it is noted that a characteristic type of ethnic formations of the primitive era is a tribe (tribe), the ethnic groups of the ancient world and the Middle Ages act as nationalities, and for subsequent eras, a nation is characteristic. There have been and are ongoing disputes between scientists about the relationship between the characteristics of these concepts. And most importantly, the problem of qualitative differences between ethnic groups at different stages of development is being discussed. But it's important to note that the history of mankind is the history of ethnic groups and their cultures!
Let's try to give a generalized description of the main features of the ethnic group. Briefly, ethnicity can be defined as conscious cultural and linguistic community. Or how a stable set of people that has developed in a certain territory and has common features of language, culture, psyche, as well as a consciousness of their unity and difference from other similar entities (i.e., self-awareness). Ethnic self-consciousness is fixed in the self-name - ethnonym.
In ethnography, such a concept as "ethnic community" is also used. So, several ethnic groups close in linguistic or cultural relations can form a special community called "meta-ethnic community" or simply - "metaethnos". An example of such an education is the Slavs - a community consisting of "related" ethnic groups: Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Polish, etc. Ethnic communities are also groups that make up ethnic groups. There is no consensus among scientists in their designation, and there is no unity in terminology. The literature often uses the terms "localgroups" and sub-ethnic groups (sub-ethnic groups).
They can form for various reasons. In one case, this is the result of territorial isolation of a part of the ethnic group, geographical isolation (for example: Pomors, Kolyma residents among Russians); in the other, it is a consequence of the special social status of the group, which distinguishes its members from fellow tribesmen (for example: Cossacks in the composition of Russians, or Shahsevens in the Azerbaijani ethnos - descendants of the Turkic tribes, from which the guards of Iranian shahs were recruited from the 17th century). In the third, this is the result of religious (confessional) isolation (Khemshins are Armenians who profess Islam, groups of Old Believers among Russians). Racial differences may also be the reason. Ethnoi, as a rule, are anthropologically heterogeneous, and sometimes a group, purely outwardly differing in this respect, has a different social status. Over time, a special local (so-called ethno-racial) group may develop. As an example, US blacks (African Americans), which are part of the North American nation, can be named.
Meta-ethnoi, ethnic groups and intra-ethnic groups (subethnoi) are formed into a complex hierarchical system, which is reflected in self-consciousness. A person can recognize himself as a Slav, and a Russian, and a Don Cossack. The formation of communities of different levels, the relationship between them attract the attention of scientists. There is also an applied, political significance. For example, group self-consciousness and interests prevail over general ethnic ones. And then the conflict can arise within the ethnos, between the groups included in it. Nowadays, confrontations are known between the Irish - Catholics and Protestants in Ulster, the Lebanese - Christians and Muslims. Of course, in all cases, conflicts are fueled by socio-economic reasons, but they manifest themselves through cultural stereotypes, traditions, i.e. in the field studied by ethnographers.
The main characteristic of an ethnic group is considered to be ethnic identity, in other words, consciousness of their unity and difference from other ethnic groups. It can be said that ethnic self-consciousness is a complex of stereotypes, which are conditionally reduced to the opposition "us - someone else", "we - they". Each side of the opposition has features that characterize "one's own" or "foreign" community. The presence of self-consciousness is an obligatory sign of an ethnic group. Consider the main complexes of stereotypes of which it consists.
The main content of ethnic self-consciousness is represented by ideas about the characteristic features, first of all, of "one's own" and, to a lesser extent, "foreign" ethnic groups. Moreover, the selection of signs of neighboring communities occurs through comparison with the properties of one's own. And often, what in relation to "ours" is called reasonable economy, in relation to others is called stinginess. What “at home” is defined as firmness of character, “with them” can be called stubbornness, and so on. And although, in general, positive self-esteem prevails, there are cases when “alien” is valued higher than “one's own”. Extremes in both cases are unfavorable for the development of an ethnos.
Close to the above is a set of stereotypical ideas about one's culture, more precisely, here separate system-forming features are singled out, perceived in the mass consciousness as basic for a given culture, or generally belonging only to it. In the literature they are called "active ethnic features". For example, when comparing Serbs and Croats, related South Slavic peoples who speak the same language, one of the main distinguishing features is considered religious (confessional): Serbs are Orthodox, Croats are Catholics. At the same time, the existence of groups (albeit small in number!) of Catholic Serbs and Orthodox Croats seems to be forgotten in the mass consciousness. Many other cultural and everyday differences that are recorded by ethnographers during special studies are not "noted" either. This is explained by the fact that the stereotypes of ethnic self-consciousness are subjective and a number of features are simply not perceived as ethnically significant.
An important set of stereotypes are ideas about "one's own" language. In the mass consciousness, it is perceived as the main sign of an ethnic group. Language is a means of communication and a sign of self-consciousness. In primitive beliefs, language, voice is a sign of the world of people. Another, otherworldly world, as a rule, is silent. Therefore, not only in those distant times, but also later in the common people's ideas, dumbness or slurred speech was considered one of the symbols of a stranger, a foreigner. For example, from "mute" the name "German" was derived. In medieval Arabia, the 7th c. the poets who kept the tradition divided the world into those who spoke indistinctly, strangers (ádzham) and their fellow tribesmen, whose speech was understandable (zý-bayán). Moreover, in literature and colloquial speech, the concepts of "language" and "people" are often used as equivalent. For example, the army of Napoleon I in 1812, in order to emphasize its size and multinationality, in Russia was called the army of “twelve languages”, the Nekrasov Cossacks who returned to Russia from Turkey said: “We have come to our language!”. There are other examples as well. Although in practice the language is a very unstable and changeable system, often national movements often began and passed as a struggle for "one's" language, its preservation and purity.
Important in self-consciousness is a complex of stereotypes about the common origin of the members of an ethnic group, or even about blood relationship. Until now, expressions such as “brothers and sisters”, “helping half-brothers”, etc. are not uncommon in everyday vocabulary and journalism. And although they are not addressed to relatives as such, among the people, especially in extreme conditions, such appeals find a response. The foregoing also explains the idea of the innate traits of ethnic (national) psychology, temperament, any properties of the ethnic group, the ability to "absorb them with mother's milk." So, we can note the tendency of ordinary consciousness to explain the common origin as kinship (even if distant). Obviously, this is facilitated by the practice of determining the ethnicity of each person based on data about his parents. This creates an opinion that blood relationship is behind belonging to a community. A certain role is played here by the predominance of marriage ties "within" one's community, as well as external, anthropological proximity, which is especially noticeable in small ethnic groups.
The common origin in the mass consciousness of the people is defined not only as kinship, but also through views about a common historical past. The images of events are imprinted in the collective memory: migrations, battles, deeds of historical characters. The most significant ones turn into ethnic symbols. For example, the significance of the Battle of Kulikovo for Russian self-consciousness, the heroic defense of Azov in 1641 (the so-called "Azov siege seat") for the Don Cossacks is well known. And the memory of such events of the Greco-Persian wars as the battle of Marathon, the feat of 300 Spartans at Thermopylae was preserved not only among the generations of the Hellenes, but also later among their descendants in the 18th-20th centuries. At the same time, the researcher must be aware that the stereotypes of mass consciousness are not a "mirror reflection" of reality. They are extremely subjective. It is not uncommon for stories and legends associated with the tragic pages of history, troubles and devastation to tell about the miraculous intervention of a hero, the expulsion of enemies, etc. There is a kind of psychological compensation. Selective memory, focusing on the positive aspects of historical existence, helped people to maintain cohesion, join forces to overcome adversity, survive trouble and difficult times.
In the structure of self-consciousness, one can also distinguish stereotypes that are associated with the image of "one's own land", "one's own territory". They include ideas about the features of the landscape, rivers, natural objects. For example, the Volga River, as one of the symbols of Russia, the Russian land, Mount Ararat - among the Armenians, etc. The role of ethnic symbols is also played by plants (birch - for the Eastern Slavs, sakura branch for the Japanese, maple, maple leaf - for the inhabitants of Canada), various animals, birds, etc. All these objects are included in heraldry and become part of the state symbols. Appeal to mythological ideas shows that natural phenomena had a sacred (mystical) character in the past, were objects of veneration. They are associated with songs, legends, traditions, ritual actions.
Finally, the external expression of ethnic self-consciousness is ethnonym , which, as noted earlier, ethnic group self-name (for example: Russian Tatars, French, and in the historical past - Phoenicians, Hittites, Elamites, etc.). This is a symbol of an ethnos, recognized both at the individual level (by individual people) and by the community as a whole. Often, ethnonyms perform ideological functions, often acting as a slogan, a banner of political movements. Let's consider them in more detail.
As a rule, a person determines his ethnicity by accepting the ethnonym of his parents. Children with parents belonging to different ethnic groups accept the ethnicity of one of them. The choice depends on various circumstances: political, legal, cultural, and so on. Sometimes the numerical ratio of the ethnic groups to which the parents belong and their social status can play a decisive role. The consciousness of ethnicity can be ambiguous. In some cases, such instability is generated by the different affiliation of the parents. Many faced a domestic situation when such a state was expressed, for example, like this: “I don’t know who I am by nationality: my father is Russian (Armenian, Tatar, etc.), and my mother is Greek!” In others, it is the result of a recent change in ethnicity, or a manifestation, more precisely, a reflection, of the hierarchical nature of the ethnic structure itself. For example, in Hellas there were differences in culture, dialect, self-consciousness between the Athenians, Spartans, Corinthians, etc. But, despite the rivalry and wars, they at the same time recognized themselves as Hellenes. A major role in this was played by common Hellenic elements of culture: the Olympic Games, the pantheon of gods, and the gradually emerging common supra-dialect language (Koine). Or another example of the hierarchy of self-consciousness, expressed in names: the Normans and Gascons in their homeland distinguish themselves from other Frenchmen, but outside of France, they are primarily French!
Sometimes the same ethnic group in addition to ethnonym - self-name (endoethnonym) , may have different names given to it by representatives of neighbors (exoethnonyms) . In other words, the ethnonym can originate in the ethnos itself, or, as in the second case, it will have an “external” origin. The ethnos, which in Russian is called "German", has the self-name "Deutsch" (endoethnonym). The Russian exoethnonym is not the only one: in French, the German sounds like "Alemann", in Serbian - "Schwab", etc.
The "external" name can become decisive. Let us turn to research on the origin of the name "Arab". There is still a lot of unexplained in this issue, but the available facts allow us to make some assumptions. Thus, the name "áribi, árab" is contained in the annals of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings of the 8th-6th centuries. BC. It is generally accepted that the word comes from the Semitic root "rb" - "to be dry, deserted." Among domestic Arabists, the opinion prevails that the meaning of the words "aribi, Arab" was not the self-name of any tribe or tribal group. On the contrary, the Arab-speaking (Proto-Arab) population was called so by their neighbors (Assyrians, Chaldeans, later Persians). The inhabitants of Arabia themselves, who were already called Arabs in scientific literature in ancient times, called themselves differently: kedar, lihiyan, shamud, time, etc. And at a later time, Greek and Roman authors also retain the term “Arab” for desert nomads. Around the 7th century BC. the geographical name (toponym) - "Arabia" also appears. Moreover, it gradually began to designate not only the arid desert, but the entire territory of the current Arabian Peninsula, moreover, it spread to neighboring territories: the Sinai Peninsula, the Syrian Desert, the regions of Mesopotamia along both banks of the Euphrates. Let's make a reservation that both ancient and later authors of the 1st-5th centuries AD. the term “Arab” was not the only designation for the inhabitants of Arabia: along with them, the words “Saracens”, or “Tayyites”, or “Madyanites”, etc., and others were also widespread. they still preferred the old generic or territorial names: Yemenis, Keysites (Banu Qais), Kelbits (Banu Kelb), or Meccans, Hijaz, etc. According to the prominent Soviet Arabist P.A. Gryaznevich, the ethnonym "Arab" has "an external origin and as a self-name appears among the Muslim armies of the Caliph during the conquests." After the lapse of time, the ethnonym "Arab" finally established itself to denote a community, its existence in the mass consciousness is perceived as a given, and the problems of origin are mainly of interest to scientists.
A number of ethnonyms of ancient origin reflect the inherent opposition of primitive groups of "one's own community" to strangers, "foreigners". This is a self-name found in all parts of the world with the meaning "people", "real people". For example, the American Eskimos call themselves "Inuit" (people), the Indians who speak the Athapa languages \u200b\u200bhave the self-name "Dene" (people), and the Delawares - "denilenanes" (real people). Among the peoples of Russia, one can note the self-name of the Mari - "Mari" (husband, man), among the Komi - "mort" (person), the Nenets - "nenets, hisava" (husband, man, person), etc. Some scientists believe that names like “man, husband, real person” appear in the era of the decomposition of primitive society (V.F. Gening), or even earlier, being the most ancient (V.A. Nikonov). Attention should be paid to the features of the functioning of self-names of this type. According to the observations of Europeans already in the XVIII century. the South African Bushmen and Hottentots had a significant gap in the levels of socio-economic development. The Bushmen, being at a lower level, did not have a common self-name, denoting themselves by tribal and tribal names. The Hottentots, being more consolidated, had a self-name. They applied the term “koikoin” (people of people, real people) to themselves, and the Bushmen, related to them in language, were designated by the word “san” (savages). Ethnocentrism is also reflected in the ethnonyms of the peoples of the Russian North. This is reflected in the grammar of the Nivkh language. With regard to people belonging to another ethnic group, they may be asked the same question as the name of inanimate objects - "Sid?" (What?). And in the case when it comes to Nivkh: "An?" (Who?). These and other examples reflect the most ancient ideas, allowing to consider only “our own” real people, separating them from “low, inferior” strangers.
Ethnonyms could also come from the name of the dominant clan, or leader. According to S.A. Pletneva, a well-known specialist in the medieval history of the nomads of the southern Russian steppes, the name "Pechenegs" most likely comes from the name of Beche, the leader of the Pecheneg union. There is also an opinion about the origin of the ethnonym "Nogai" on behalf of Khan Nogai.
There are examples when an ethnonym is "transferred" from one nation to another. For example, the self-name "Bulgarians", denoting the Turkic-speaking nomads who settled in the 7th century. territory south of the Danube, became the starting point for the name of the state that arose here, and then turned into the ethnonym of the South Slavic ethnos. There are other ways of forming ethnonyms.
The self-name of an ethnic group should be distinguished from the name "polytonym" (from the Greek “polyteia” - the state and “onym” - the name), which denotes state, socio-political affiliation (politonyms of the 20th century - Soviet, Ethiopian, Yugoslav, Canadian, Czechoslovak, etc.). It is possible for a polytonym to become an ethnonym (for example: the previously mentioned term "Bulgarians"). There are frequent cases of coincidence of a polytonym and an ethnonym, especially in ethnically homogeneous states. For example, the name "Italian", "French". In Italy and France, they are both an ethnonym and a polytonym. And vice versa, for the inhabitants of the Brittany peninsula, descendants of the Celts, “Frenchman” is a polytonym, and “Breton” is an ethnonym. These and other situations depend on the peculiarities of historical development, the level of self-awareness, and the status of an ethnos in society.
We have considered a number of components associated with such an important feature of an ethnos as ethnic self-awareness. Once again, we note that his stereotypes are a subjective reflection of the realities of the surrounding world. However, these are very important stereotypes that determine the actions and behavior of large groups of people, perceived by them as sacred symbols. Thanks to them, the ethnos is consolidated, the best moral qualities are formed in its members. The study of self-consciousness and the problems associated with it occupies an important place in Russian ethnography.
Attract the attention of scientists and cultural issues . It is cultural specificity, together with the language that expresses it, is considered as the main feature in delimiting ethnic communities. Let's get acquainted with this concept in more detail.
The word “culture”, which is common in everyday speech (from the Latin “cultura”) means “cultivation, processing”. There are many definitions in the scientific literature. Without being distracted by particulars, two traditions in the use of the term can be distinguished. According to one, culture is defined in a "narrow, evaluative" sense. Here, with all the variety of formulations, they are united by what is meant by the name "culture" positive results of human activity. With this approach, expressions like “anti-culture, uncultured, destruction of culture” are appropriate. This evaluative definition is rooted in antiquity. Previously, examples were given of contrasting "one's own cultural" community with supposedly devoid of culture "foreigners". In ancient Greece, barbarian neighbors were considered uncultured and wild. “They are weaker in mind than the Hellenes,” says the tragic poet Euripides in their address. According to Aristotle, the animal principle predominates in the barbarians. Therefore, he advises Alexander the Great to treat them like animals or plants. And the ancient Chinese opposed themselves to the "barbarians of the four countries of the world." Chronicle of the 4th century BC. The Zuozhuan states that "barbarians are jackals and wolves." And in the 1st century AD. historian Ban Gu believed that "... they have the face of people and the heart of wild beasts... Therefore, a wise ruler treats barbarians like wild animals." The limitedness and inhumanity of such characteristics is obvious to a person of the late 20th century. However, the “evaluative” use of the term “culture” has been preserved in colloquial speech, journalism, and scientific literature. If we discard the above extremes, forgivable to the thinkers of antiquity, we can say that we have a stable tradition of interpreting the concept, which has every right to exist.
In ethnography (ethnology) and other sciences that study peoples, another tradition prevails that defines the concept of "culture" in a "broader" non-evaluative sense. With this approach culture means everything that is created by people in the process of mental and physical labor to satisfy their various material and spiritual needs. In other words, culture is the cumulative result of human activity. Everything that surrounds us, the entire external environment in which we live, is divided into natural (natural), which arose long before the appearance of people, and artificial (cultural), which was formed along with them and as a result of their purposeful activities. Let's make a reservation that in the modern world such a distinction is very arbitrary, since it is almost impossible to find corners on the planet where human influence has not manifested itself to one degree or another. Culture in the "broad" non-judgmental sense is called ethnic, traditional, less often - everyday.
Ethnic culture has the same antiquity as humanity itself. "Uncultured" peoples not only do not exist today, but also did not exist in the past. Distribution in the XVIII - early XX century. in Western and partly in Russian ethnography, the division of peoples into "natural" and "cultural" is now rare. The expression “poorly cultured peoples” cannot be considered successful either, since even the communities at the lowest stage of socio-economic development - the Tasmanians, Bushmen, natives of Australia and Tierra del Fuego - created complex and original cultures adapted to the natural conditions of their life.
In the culture of each people, phenomena are intertwined that are peculiar only to one or even to individual social and ethnographic groups that make up its composition, with signs common to many ethnic groups or characteristic of all mankind in a given historical era. For example, wooden spears and throwing darts were common in various forms among all the peoples of the planet before they became familiar with metal processing. Or - a boomerang, which is perceived by many as a throwing weapon only for Australian aborigines, is also known on the islands of Melanesia, to some groups of South American Indians, and, according to archaeologists, to the ancient inhabitants of Europe in general during the Late Paleolithic.
So, ethnic culture is an artificial environment created by the cultural efforts of the members of an ethnic group. The fact that the people (ethnos) is the creator of history and culture does not need further explanation. We add that, unfortunately, a person creates and stores not only what is useful to him. Therefore, part of the culture are the means of destruction, narcotic and poisonous substances, various racist theories, antisocial forms of organization of behavior. The sad list can be continued, recognizing that culture also carries a certain negative potential, which, under adverse conditions, can lead to the destruction of itself. Ethnos and its culture do not exist separately. History knows many examples of how the collapse of the economy, social ties, oblivion of the customs of ancestors, moral principles led to the death of not only states, but also the ethnic groups that created them. The destruction of a culture can even be accompanied by the biological degradation of its bearers, i.e. - people. In this way, ethnic culture is the environment , in which the ethnos exists and develops. This was recognized already in ancient times. The cultural world of a clan, tribe, ethnos was part of the general cosmic order. Everything that existed in the mind of primitive man was explained by the actions of the first ancestors, cultural heroes, gods, carried out in a special "mythical time". It was then, according to myths, that the cosmic order was created: the separation of land from the sea, sky from earth, day from night, etc. But at the same time, the first customs, crafts, forms of organization arose - in other words, everything that we call a cultural (artificially created by people) environment. The tragic events of history, crises and wars were considered the result of the rejection of the norms that supported the order created in mythical times, punishment from above. Thus, at the mythological level, the meaning of culture was perceived and comprehended.
To study its elements, it is necessary classify. The term accepted in science comes from a combination of Latin words: "class" - discharge and "fascere" - to do. the distribution of certain objects (in this case, the elements that make up culture as a single system) depending on their common, interrelated features. Compilation of classifications is used in all natural and human sciences. Ethnographers usually divide culture into material and spiritual. This is not only common, but one of the earliest classifications that arose in European science in the 19th century.
Material culture includes things and objects that materially exist in space for certain periods of time. These are tools, weapons, vehicles, clothing, food, settlements, dwellings, etc. This category also includes cultivated plants, domestic animals, body care, tattoos, jewelry, etc. It can be added that material culture is the objects and skills associated with them, aimed at meeting the needs of society. This concept covers not only objects related to the sphere of production and consumption, but also forms of human activity associated with them. In other words, the ethnographer does not simply describe a thing, but his attention is primarily directed to the analysis of the circumstances related to its manufacture, functions (including ritual ones), ethnic specificity, and also to the characterization of social relations that affect its use.
For example, the most important component of ethnic culture is traditional clothing (costume), which is considered as a complex that also includes shoes, a headdress, a hairstyle, body care products, etc. At the same time, the researcher does not necessarily have the skill of a tailor. He is interested not only in material, color, cut, but, above all, in the influence of the natural and geographical environment, religious and aesthetic ideas on the costume. Attention is drawn to interethnic relations, possible borrowings. Finally, clothing acts as a sign. Ways of wearing, color, ornament, combination of jewelry - not only made it possible to distinguish "one's own" from "alien", but carried information about marital status, profession, social status, in the past - tribal affiliation. So, among the peoples of Europe, a distinctive feature of a married woman is a headdress that hides her hair. This is a sign that distinguishes them from unmarried girls, just like the custom in the past in Japan, according to which, upon entering into marriage, a woman's eyebrows were plucked and her teeth were blackened. Clothing, as well as appearance in general, could emphasize a certain situation. Many peoples in the past and today, as a sign of mourning, cut their hair or, on the contrary, grow their hair and beard, wear special robes, or tear ordinary clothes as a sign of mourning. Special attire and decorations were worn for the holidays, emphasizing the solemnity of the situation: wedding clothes, anointing victors, winners in sports, etc. with incense. In ancient Rome, patrician women from the Cincinatus family wore long hair, from the Torquat family - a golden chain, from the Attali family - did not wear linen clothes. The list of examples can be continued. However, let us confine ourselves to the remark of the famous Soviet ethnographer S.A. Tokarev: “...Things are of interest to the ethnographer not in themselves, but in their relation to man.”
Spiritual culture is information that exists in the collective memory of an ethnos (or part of it), is transmitted from generation to generation by telling or showing, and manifests itself in certain forms of behavior. It includes skills, knowledge, rituals, legal norms, folklore, and religious ideas imprinted in the brain cells. We emphasize that all this should manifest itself materially or tangibly. For example, songs must be performed, heard (tangible form), or recorded (tangible form). Only in this case, information will be preserved and passed on from generation to generation. Naturally, “in its pure form” the realities of spiritual culture cannot exist.
The very distinction between material and spiritual culture is also conditional. Rituals include material components: ritual food and clothing, religious objects, special places where the action takes place. Close ties between material and spiritual culture are manifested in the field of musical creativity (musical records, musical instruments). Finally, such a distinction is incorrect in relation to works of art and many cultural objects (for example: icons). Therefore, other classifications are used in ethnography. Without considering them in this essay, we note that any has a limited character, is conditional. But all of them serve to study the whole variety of ethnographic facts, helping the researcher to navigate in their sea, finding the relationship between phenomena. The classification is related to method of ethnographic research. As in any other science, much attention is paid to the latter.
In the minds of modern man there is an exaggerated idea of the stagnation of ethnic (traditional) culture. However, in practice it is a dynamic, changing system. It is influenced by various factors.
Yes, you can call the impact of the natural-geographical environment. It is the environment that largely determines the characteristics of clothing, housing, a set of cultivated crops, hunting objects, etc. Landscape and soil influence the nature of labor activity, especially in agriculture, the type and layout of settlements, and natural boundaries (rivers, mountains) play the role of ethnic boundaries, affecting settlement and contacts between groups.
Even in the last century, many scientists, paying attention to the coincidence in the cultures of peoples distant from each other, tried to explain this by “cultural diffusion”. A whole trend has been preserved - "diffusionism", which united different schools, between which there were scientific disputes. For all their differences, they were united by one thing: the recognition of the spread of the main cultural achievements from one or several centers, in which, according to these scientists, there were original first complexes of culture. This explained the appearance in different regions of the bow and arrows, the wheel, the domestication of animals, etc. Such diffusion implies a special role of migrations and various contacts. This could lead to incredible conclusions. For example, in the XX century. there were theories according to which the ancestors of the Prairie Indians, proud Apaches, Cheyennes, Comanches, familiar to the reader from adventure novels and American films, were known to us ... Mongols, Jurchens and even Scythians. At the same time, attention was paid to coincidences in the methods of caring for horses, in horse harness, methods of driven hunting, the layout of a nomadic camp, military techniques, etc. However, in reality, the listed groups had no contacts. And the coincidences are explained by close levels of socio-economic development, the same directions of the economy and similar natural and geographical conditions (the prairies of North America - the steppes of Eurasia). In ethnography there is a concept economic and cultural type. It means a certain a complex of features of the economy and culture that develop among peoples who are at the same level of socio-economic development and in similar natural and geographical conditions. Prairie Indians belonged to the economic and cultural type of horse hunters that developed in America in the 18th century. And those communities in which they saw their ancestors were also either horse hunters (in the Middle Ages, the Jurchens, “forest” Mongols), or belonged to a close type of nomadic pastoralists of the steppes and forest-steppes of a temperate climate. Also, the Yahi Indians from California, the Bushmen of South-West Africa, and the natives of Australia belonged to one economic and cultural type. And they have developed common cultural characteristics without cultural contacts. Let us once again emphasize the importance of natural and geographical factors in the formation of economic and cultural types.
Features of the environment affect certain aspects of spiritual culture and the psychological make-up of the ethnic group. This finds indirect expression in individual habits, customs, rituals, in which the peculiarities of folk life are manifested. Thus, the climatically determined cycles of agricultural work in the temperate zone contributed to the emergence of specific customs and rituals unknown to the tribes of hunters and gatherers of the tropics. Finally, the geographical environment finds expression in self-consciousness, as discussed above.
The interaction of ethnic culture and the natural environment is mutual. "External" impulses seem to be refracted through the protective mechanisms of culture. The higher its level, the more indirect will be the impact of the natural environment, and, conversely, the more actively the ethnos itself can change it. We add that not always for the better: the ecological crisis is closely connected with social progress. For comparison, it is enough to imagine the possibilities, the impact on the nature of the aborigines of Australia and the prevailing by the end of the 19th century. Australian (Anglo-Australian) nation.
The ethnopolitical (ethnosocial) environment also influences the dynamics of ethnic culture. The ethnos develops in the environment of neighbors, having contacts with them. With all their diversity, one can distinguish common trends. Let's consider some of them. Thus, the influence of cultures is mutual nature. Even the culture of the Australian aborigines influenced the art, folklore, forms of leisure (for example: throwing a boomerang as a sport) of the "white" Australians. The latter also borrowed ways of surviving in hard-to-reach places, many words and names. To characterize such processes, the concept is used acculturation. This is the process of interpenetration of culture as a result of which they change. In the scientific schools of the West, this term is interpreted as a synonym for Europeanization, meaning the spread among the peoples of Asia, Africa, and South America of elements of "Western" culture. Such a "narrow" understanding unwittingly implies the unequal value of cultures.
Long-term interaction of ethnic groups living in the same territory under the same environmental conditions gives rise to similar cultural characteristics. For example, this explains the proximity in clothing, food, customs, folklore among the peoples of the North Caucasus. This despite the fact that they differ in origin, language, religion. The North Caucasus, as well as the Volga region, the Carpathians, the Baltic states are not just geographical concepts, but - historical and ethnographic regions. These are regions whose population, due to long-term contacts, mutual influences (i.e., acculturation), living in the same conditions, develops similar cultural characteristics.
Finally, the dynamics of culture depends on historical experience accumulated by the ethnic group. This is information that is stored in the collective memory of the people and manifests itself in stereotypes of behavior and habits of people. Customs, folklore, various types of historical sources play an important role in its preservation, and at a later time - organized education (for example: school), special forms of storage (museums, libraries, archives), and the media. The cumulative experience related to a certain field of activity is often called ethnic (cultural) traditions. (from the Latin "traditio" - transmission, narration). And the forms listed above (customs, folklore, behavioral stereotypes, etc.) are cultural ways of preserving them and passing them on from generation to generation.
Tradition should be distinguished innovation. This term denotes new elements (in the economy, material and spiritual culture, social life), which are either introduced from outside from other ethnic groups, or are born in the bowels of culture itself.
"Past" experience helps the ethnos to survive in changing external conditions. It is not for nothing that in many traditional societies, during difficult periods of history, the desire for more careful observance of the customs of their ancestors, the preservation of language, folklore, etc. increases. Conversely, the weakening of cultural immunity contributes to the rapid penetration of destructive innovations. Contacts between ethnic groups are by no means always progressive, since peoples often interact on the historical stage, differing in the level of development, numbers, and having different political status. For the Indians of America, the Tasmanians, the natives of Australia and Tropical Africa, acquaintance with Europeans had tragic results. It is not only about the physical destruction of entire tribes. Aboriginal cultures were penetrated by innovations that destroyed them. The consequence of contacts was the spread of alcoholism, prostitution, gambling and, finally, a disease that claimed hundreds of lives.
The development of ethnic culture is a constant interaction in it of the old (traditions) and the new (innovations). And the forms of such interaction can be both peaceful and non-peaceful. For example, in many regions, the spread and establishment of Christianity and Islam was accompanied by wars and violence. It can be said that ethnic tradition is yesterday's innovations. For example, the use of potatoes for food is a stable tradition in the nutrition of the peoples of Europe. And among the East Slavic ethnic groups, it is often called: “second bread”, “simple folk food”. But back in the 18th century. this overseas vegetable was perceived as "master's whim", "evil berry". His assertion in field crops and nutrition sometimes took dramatic forms: suffice it to recall the potato riots of peasants in Russia and Europe. It took time for the innovation not only to take root in the culture, but also to forget about its origin, began to consider it part of “their” culture. When this happens, it becomes a tradition.
Sources tell us about the difficulties faced by the ruler of the ancient Chinese kingdom of Zhao named Wuling-wang, who decided to adopt part of the costume of his nomad neighbors: to force the warriors ... to wear pants. The fact is that in the V-IV centuries. BC. the ancient Chinese (huaxia) were disgusted by the very idea that a man could wear pants. After all, these are clothes, "northern barbarians"! Both the established tradition of wearing clothes and the idea of the exclusivity of Chinese culture and the inadmissibility of borrowing from neighbors who were not considered people were against the innovation. But Wuling-wang was guided by state interests: the kingdom of Zhao bordered on nomads, who could not be defeated without cavalry. Until the 4th century BC. the Chinese fought in chariots, but now it was required to master horseback riding. And with bare legs it is very difficult to prancing on a horse all day long!
The far-sighted ruler won, having managed to overcome both his own prejudices and the resistance of his subjects. Soon cavalry (and pants) began to appear in other ancient Chinese kingdoms. In the Middle Ages, pants had already become part of the men's suit, and by the 19th century. Even women wore them. Innovation has become a tradition.
We have considered only some problems of ethnographic science. To the above, you can add the study ethnocultural (ethnic) processes. This - significant changes in the course of the historical development of individual elements of culture, parts of ethnic groups, as well as the emergence of new ethnic groups. These processes together make up the content ethnic history, which begins with the birth of an ethnos and ends when it leaves the historical stage. Speaking of it, one cannot fail to mention the problems ethnogenesis (from Greek: "ethnos" - people, "genesis" - origin, emergence, i.e. "emergence of an ethnos"), under which the process of forming an ethnos on the basis of already existing communities is implied. This is an obligatory stage that begins the history of any nation, full of events and remaining in the minds of descendants. It is not for nothing that in the literature it is emotionally called “ethnogenetic mutation” or “passionary (from the Latin “passio” - passion, suffering) explosion”.
Ethnography studies not only primitive, but also modern ethnic groups. And its conclusions not only make it possible to better understand what happened in the past, but also to navigate the turbulent processes of the modern world, predicting, if necessary, their results.
This article provides an answer to the question of what ethnography studies. We will talk in detail about this science, point out some of its features, justify its relevance and significance.
Where to start answering the question of what ethnography studies? From the definition of the meaning of its name. Ethnography is a science that studies translated from Greek means "tribe", "people", and "grapho" - I write. Therefore, the name of this science can be translated as "description of peoples." By analogy, for example, petrography is a description of stones, geography is a description of the Earth, etc. But purely descriptive sciences do not exist. A description for any of them is only a basis for conclusions, for discerning patterns in the development of a particular phenomenon and object. For example, geography cognizes relief, vegetation, climate, wildlife, etc. from the point of view of their interconnection, patterns of development. Only knowing the patterns, we can use the wealth of nature to serve society.
Speaking about what ethnography studies as a science, it should be noted that it also does not simply describe the peoples living on Earth. She learns the patterns by which they are formed and developed, as well as the reasons why one nation differs from another. Based on this, the following definition can be derived: ethnography is a science that studies peoples, revealing the complex processes of their development.
The emergence of ethnography
Although the factual data that later formed the basis of ethnography began to be collected and accumulated quite a long time ago, it itself emerged as an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century. The object of her research was first sociohistorical organisms (sociors) - individual human societies that continued to be primitive at the time of the emergence of this science. Moreover, ethnography at first studied not so much them as a whole, but rather the culture of these societies. It has always been and remains the only science whose subject of study is primitive societies. However, ethnography is a science that studies not only sociors. It is possible to single out at least two of its objects.
Two objects of ethnography
In any pre-capitalist class society, with the exception of the ancient one, there have always been two connected, but different tops) and a common people (lower culture). The latter is destroyed as it develops, but disappears only under capitalism. This process often takes quite a long time. And the science that interests us from its very inception began to study not only but also the common people, primarily the peasant. This should be taken into account when answering the question of what ethnography studies. The summary of the above is as follows: from the very beginning, it had 2 objects - primitive and common folk culture.
Features of the development of ethnographic science in the UK
Great Britain was the largest colonial power at the time of the emergence of ethnography. Many territories were subject to this state, and primitive societies lived on many of them. But the peasantry in Great Britain had already disappeared by this time. As a result, in this country, ethnography arose as a science dealing only with the study of primitive societies. And the study of what was connected with the remnants of the peasant world was completely engaged in folklore. Nevertheless, English scientists quite early became interested in the peasantry of the societies of the East, which found themselves under the rule of Great Britain, primarily India (B. Baden-Powell, G. Maine). However, these studies were considered most often as not related to ethnography. In addition, their object was mainly the peasant community, and not culture.
Ethnography in Germany
As far as Germany is concerned, it has also developed its own view of what ethnography studies. The definition of this science by German scientists was somewhat different, which, however, is easily explained. The fact is that the peasantry continued to exist in this country. Therefore, the answer to the question of what ethnography studies in Germany was at first the following: common folk culture. And only then did the science of primitive societies begin to appear, which was developed after Germany became a colonial power. By the way, this happened quite late.
The development of the science of ethnography in Russia
The features of the development of our country were such that the primitive and peasant worlds not only existed side by side, but also interacted and penetrated each other. The line between them often had a relative character. Therefore, in the Russian scientific community there was a common name for this science (ethnology or ethnography), but there were no special terms for the two disciplines that make it up.
Ethnology and racial theories
In Western Europe, from the middle of the 19th century, a second name for this science arose - ethnology. In translation, it means "the study of peoples." This name is more suitable to reflect the essence of the science we are interested in. However, it arose in Western Europe when racial theories, according to which peoples are divided into higher and lower races, became widespread. The lower races are natural peoples who are at a low level of socio-economic development. They have no history, and even if there is one, it remains unknown. These peoples should only be described, that is, their life activity should be recorded at the present time. This is what a science like ethnography should do.
Peoples that are at a high level of cultural and economic development are historical, having a long and complex history. It is necessary to study them, and this is the task of ethnology.
Use of the terms "ethnography" and "ethnology"
It should be noted that the division of all peoples into historical and natural, higher and lower, the majority of scientists still did not accept. They rightly believed that there is only one science - history, which is divided into 2 sections: the history of human society and the history of nature. The first began when mankind separated from the animal world. It is determined by the general laws of the development of society. Thus, the division of peoples into natural and historical has no scientific basis. However, the term "ethnology" still stuck in the West for the science of peoples. In Russia, the concept of "ethnography" is usually used to designate it. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the same content was put into these terms both in Russia and in the West: it was the study, and not the description of the peoples living on Earth.
At the All-Union Conference held in Alma-Ata in 1990, it was decided to unify the terms that denote the science of peoples. Ethnography in our country also began to be officially called ethnology. However, the term "ethnography" has been preserved. Today we say "ethnographic museums", "ethnographic expeditions", etc. Thus, ethnology and ethnography are two terms that serve to designate the science of peoples.
Differences between nations
The peoples living on Earth differ in racial (physical) features - in the color and shape of hair, skin color, height, in the structure of the soft parts of the face, etc. On this basis, they are divided into Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Negroid, and also mixed in racial respect. Physical anthropology is concerned with the study of all these differences between them.
The peoples of our planet speak different languages - German, English, Russian, etc. Languages are combined into related languages Linguistics is studying them. It deals with grammar, phonetics, vocabulary of languages.
The peoples inhabiting the Earth are also distinguished by their name (Russians, Tatars, Georgians, etc.), self-consciousness (I am Belarusian, I am Kyrgyz), mental characteristics and a whole complex of cultural and everyday elements inherent in each of them (originality of clothing, housing, rituals in social and family life, etc.). Thanks to this, each nation can isolate itself from others that do not have these features. Ethnology, or ethnography, is the study of these differences.
Ethnic features
Thus, we can assume that the object of study of the science of ethnography is the people, and the subject is ethnic characteristics. The latter are understood as self-consciousness, a complex of elements of the spiritual, social and features of the psyche and life, developed as a result of a long historical development. All of the above features in their totality constitute the national culture of the people. It is the main subject of such a science as ethnography.
Let's answer the question of why it is necessary to study the ethnic characteristics of a particular people, its culture.
Ethnography and history
First of all, knowledge of them gives us the opportunity to solve questions about its origin, historical development. The history of the people is written on ethnographic material. It should be able to read. Cultural and everyday features are always closely related to political, economic, and environmental factors. Therefore, the entire cultural and community complex changes when these factors change. Therefore, knowing the life and culture of the people, we can talk about the natural-geographical and socio-economic conditions in which it existed. All this is very important for understanding the roots of its origin, as well as development. Due to the fact that ethnography solves all these questions, it can be considered a historical science. It is to such that it belongs according to its classification status.
Ethnography is a social discipline
However, its significance is not limited to the above. What ethnography studies is very important. Let us briefly characterize its significance from the other side.
Knowledge of national life and culture provides an opportunity to determine the direction of various cultural and everyday processes that are currently taking place. And without their knowledge it is impossible to carry out cultural and socio-economic transformations. On our planet, there have always been processes that changed the cultural and everyday appearance of various peoples, and sometimes led to the fact that some of them disappeared, while others appeared. All these processes are also related to what ethnography studies.
History knows many examples of the disappearance of some peoples and the emergence of others. In particular, the Thracians, Gauls, Meshchers, Bulgars, Merya, and others once existed. Today they are gone. The French, Bulgarians, Tatars, and others appeared. This happened as a result of ethnic processes that took place intensively in the past. They continue to this day. Their orientation should be known in order to be able to optimally manage society. The fact is that underestimation of the trends in the development and functioning of ethnic groups leads to the emergence and other negative consequences that retard social development on the path of progress. This problem, which is solved by the science of ethnography, gives grounds for its inclusion in the cycle of social disciplines.
Ethnography and ecology
And for the solution of environmental problems that are relevant today, knowledge of the cultural and everyday characteristics of various peoples is of great importance. After all, these features significantly affect the direction of economic activity, which, in turn, affects the natural and geographical environment. Having no idea about the cultural and everyday characteristics of the respective peoples, one cannot interfere in their economic activities. For example, it is not necessary to transfer a nomadic people to settled life, to settle mountain dwellers in the valleys, etc. This is fraught with significant moral and economic losses. It is no coincidence that a new science has appeared in our time - ethnic ecology. It examines the various connections and interactions that exist between the natural-geographical environment and man.
Ethnography and politics
But even this is not yet a complete answer to the question of the significance of what ethnography studies. Grade 5 in history lessons usually covers the topic "ethnography", but touches on it only superficially. And yet the significance of this science is very great. Without an idea of the cultural and everyday characteristics of the various peoples inhabiting the Earth, it is impossible to establish cultural, political and economic contacts between them. And without them it is impossible to imagine not only the development of mankind, but also its very existence. In order to live in good neighborliness and friendship with any nation, it is necessary to know it. This is especially true for multinational areas. After all, people live here, different in culture and language.
Musical ethnography
In conclusion, we note that there are also interdisciplinary disciplines related to this science, one of which is musical ethnography. Specialists in this field are trained in conservatories. Perhaps you have already guessed what musical ethnography studies? The correct answer is folk music. This discipline is at the intersection of folklore, ethnography and musicology.
As you can see, what ethnography studies is very important from a practical point of view, and in several areas at once. Therefore, the importance of this science is very great and it will always be relevant.
So, we have analyzed the question of what ethnography studies. The answer, we hope, satisfied you, and the information provided will be useful.
The term "ethnography" is more familiar to representatives of Russian culture, since in the Soviet years anthropology practically did not develop and ethnography served as a substitute for it. But to what extent it is able to perform this function, whether the two sciences - anthropology and ethnography - are synonymous or they are two different sciences, we will try to figure this out.
Ethnography is often confused not only with anthropology, but also with ethnology, therefore, in scientific dictionaries, when defining ethnography, ethnology is often mentioned in brackets as its equivalent or a discipline very similar to it.
Ethnography(from Greek ethnos - tribe, people) (ethnology) - the science of ethnic groups (peoples), studying their origin and settlement, life and culture. Formation of ethnography as a science in the second half of the 19th century. associated with the evolutionary school (E. Taylor, L. G. Morgan, etc.), which proceeded from the ideas of the unity of human culture. From the end of the 19th century regional cultures and their mutual influence are studied (diffusionism, cultural-historical school). The object of the study was living primitive societies. Hence the name of ethnography as "the science of living antiquity." At first, ethnography explored not so much social relations as culture. Field research has been and remains the main method of collecting empirical information. Gradually, the horizon of ethnography expanded to the study of the culture of traditional society as a whole, where primitive society was included only as one of the elements. Scientists began to study the peasant (common) culture and its transformation under the influence of capitalism. Gradually, in a number of countries, including the USSR, two sections of ethnography emerged as independent disciplines: 1) the ethnography of primitive times and 2) the ethnography of the peasantry. History of formation
Levy J. On the issue of microhistory//Modern methods of teaching modern history. M., 1996. S. 167-190; Medic X. Microhistory // THESIS. Theory and history of economic and social institutions and systems. 1994. Vol. II. Issue. 4. S. 193-202; Revel J. Microanalysis and construction of the social // Modern methods of teaching modern history. M., 1996. S. 236-261. (For a brief version of the same work, see: Odysseus: Man in History. 1996. M., 1996. S. 110-127.) Ludtke A. What is the history of everyday life? Her achievements and prospects in Germany // Social history. 1998/99. M., 1999. S. 77-100; Obolenskaya SV. "History of everyday life" in modern historiography of Germany // Odyssey: Man in history. 1990. M., 1990. S. 182-198.
ethnography in the unity of its two components, traced by Yu.I. Semenov 27 allows us to conclude the following. In England, by the time ethnography appeared, peasant culture had already disappeared, giving way to industry - only written sources were preserved, which were actively studied by folklorists and historians. The only object was
overseas colonies, where primitive societies lived in many, and in some, for example, in India, living peasant societies. But these studies were most often not considered as related to ethnography, especially since their object was not so much peasant culture as the peasant community. In the United States, the traditional peasantry never existed, but partly next to American society, partly in its depths, there were many Indian societies that were classified as primitive. Therefore, ethnography here arose as a science almost exclusively about living primitive societies. In Germany, where the peasantry, unlike England, continued to exist, ethnography arose first of all as a science of common folk culture, and only then, with the transformation of Germany into a colonial power, did it become possible to study living primitiveness and develop its ethnography.
In Russia, due to the peculiarities of its development, the peasant and primitive worlds not only coexisted, but also interpenetrated. Since the boundary between them was relative, to designate the two disciplines they managed with one term - "ethnography". Studying primitiveness, ethnographers called the objects of their study peoples or tribes, studying civilized societies - simply peoples, which gave them reason to call their science ethnography, or ethnology (from the Greek ethnos - people). Often the description of ethnic groups, or peoples, is given in ethnography around the world and in a comparative manner: the peoples of Western Europe, Southeast Asia, South America, etc., as a result of which ethnography gradually converged with geography. Since the mid 30s. in the USSR, a course was taken mainly only on geoethnography. Less and less attention was paid to other sections of ethnological science, which was, in particular, reflected in the structure of the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, which consisted entirely of regional sectors: Western Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, etc. Ethnography as a science of primitive societies received less development. At the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, until 1991, there was a sector of the history of primitive society, which prepared fundamental works on the potestary system, economic ethnology,
Semenov Yu.I. The subject of ethnography (ethnology) and the problem of its correlation with the subject of social anthropology // Science of culture and social practice: an anthropological perspective. M., 1998. S. 7-39.
the history of marriage and family, the problems of war and peace in primitive, pre-class and early class societies, etc. In this area, serious results have been obtained by domestic scientists (the works of S.A. Arutyunov, S.A. Tolstov, A.M. Zolotarev, MO. Kosven, A.K. Baiburin, A.I. Pershits, S.A. Tokarev, etc.) .
The preservation of the concept of "primitive culture" as part of ethnography made it possible to propose a theory based on the idea of development, evolution. This is how the evolutionist theory of primitive culture by E.B. Taylor "Primitive Culture" (1871), where the system-forming factor in the development of primitive society, like M. Weber's analysis of the evolution of capitalist society, was religion.
Over time, experts began to separate two related concepts - ethnography and ethnology. Ethnography is understood as the study of primitive and (or) peasant culture, mainly by the method of collecting empirical information, and ethnology is the study of the same objects and processes, but mainly by a theoretical method. Both sciences (sections) do not contradict, but complement each other. The development of the theoretical layer of knowledge in ethnography (ethnology) is associated with the concepts of E. Taylor, L.G. Morgan, E. Durkheim, L. Levy-Bruhl, B. Malinovsky, A. Radcliffe-Brown, K. Levi-Strauss and others.
At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. some scientists (L. Frobenius, F. Gröbner, W. Schmidt, F. Boasidr.), who abandoned the old evolutionary approaches, arguing that the object of study should not be peoples, but cultures, rejected the term "ethnography", announcing creation of a new science, which
Ruyu they called cultural anthropology. Another part of ethnographers from Great Britain and the USA (B.K. Malinovsky, A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, L.E. White, J. Steward, E.R. Service, etc.) continued to consider society, and not culture. But they also abandoned the term "ethnography", replacing it with another - "social anthropology" and understanding it as the science of living primitive societies. As a result, in the middle of the XX century. three sciences were formed instead of one: 1) ethnology, which was engaged in the collection of empirical data on the customs and traditions of different peoples and their "geographical" distribution; 2) cultural anthropology, which brought to the fore the field study of the culture of the primitive tribes living today; 3) social anthropology, which was interested in social stratification, family structure, and the economic structure of the same primitive tribes. Studying the same object, cultural anthropology proceeded from the primacy of culture, while social anthropology proceeded from the primacy of the social structure of society. But since culture and social structure are an inseparable unity, experts often talk about the existence of not two, but one science - social and cultural anthropology. In this pair of sciences, social anthropology is in the lead, a section of which is sometimes considered cultural anthropology. Within the framework of social anthropology in the XX century. stood out as independent areas, in particular: anthropology of law (anthropology of law), studying primitive laws and legal norms; family anthropology (anthropology of family), studying kinship systems and related organizations; anthropology of war (anthropology of war), exploring conflicts and wars in primitive society, etc. 28
m For more details, see: Semenov Yu.I. Decree. op.
Sociology studies social relations, structure and institutions of modern industrial and post-industrial societies, predominantly urban population, which makes up more than half of the world's population
Anthropology studies the social relations, traditions and customs of primitive tribes that have survived to the present day, and draws comparisons with modern societies
Ethnography studies the customs and traditions of small peoples, as well as the non-urban population of developed countries, which makes up less than half of the inhabitants of the Earth
Rice.21. Subjects of study of sociology, anthropology and ethnography
Modern ethnography studies small peoples and rural populations that have preserved their traditional way of life in all civilized and industrial countries of Western Europe, Southeast Asia, South America, etc. The description of peoples, their traditions, culture, way of life is based on comparative material. In this case, the geographical principle is often the leading one in the systematization of ethnographic knowledge, which is based on empirical data collected, processed, classified and interpreted after field work. Ethnographers study local customs and customs, language and rituals, economics and politics, social organization and institutions, and collect empirical data about the different peoples of the world and their "geographical" distribution on the planet.
Recently, Russian specialists have restored the traditions of our great compatriot Miklouho-Maclay and, after a century-long break, for the first time set off to study the customs and traditions not of the peoples of the north of Russia, but of wild tribes living far beyond its borders, in particular, near the coast of Australia.
1. Ethnography as a science. Subject, object, research tasks
The word "ethnography" comes from "ethnos" - tribe, people and "count" - description.
Ethnography is a science that studies the everyday and cultural characteristics of the peoples of the world, the problems of origin, settlement, cultural and historical relationship. Ethnography is connected with other sciences, both humanities and natural sciences.
Research objects:
Peoples, ethnic groups;
Historical and cultural societies in the past and present.
In ethnography subject of study is a comprehensive study of the ethno-social and ethno-cultural development of the peoples of the world in the past and present.
In ethnography, there are various areas of research:
Paleoethnography - reconstruction of cultural and everyday features based on archaeological materials;
Ethnogenesis - the study of the process of formation of peoples;
Ethnic history, demography;
Cartography - a technique for fixing ethnic and ethnographic processes in maps;
Ethnic ecology - the study of the processes of interaction of an ethnic group with the natural environment;
Ethnosociology; ethnopsychology; physical anthropology...
2. Methods and sources of research in ethnology
Source classification:
1. By types:
Real - any real-life items (clothes, food, utensils);
Written - any materials recorded in writing (studies and descriptions of scientists, notes of travelers, folklore and artistic texts ...);
Visual (paintings, photographs, rock art);
Oral or memorata (stories about life).
2. By type:
folklore;
Statistical;
Office materials;
Ethnographic descriptions;
Research materials of other sciences (archaeological, ethnolinguistic…).
3. By methods:
Method- a method of obtaining material and its subsequent processing.
The main method is field expeditionary research.
Material collection method:
Questioning, interviewing;
Direct observation;
Audio recording and video recording;
Selection and analysis of statistical and archival sources.
Processing methods:
Description;
Historical and comparative;
Historical and genetic;
Historical and typological;
Structural-typological;
Structural-functional;
Semiotic;
Systems approach;
Mathematical and statistical;
Sociological (questioning);
Mapping.
3. Development of ethnography as a science
1. The beginnings of ethnographic knowledge are already formed in the ancient period (9th century BC - 2nd century AD). Scientists: Herodotus (5th century BC), Aristotle (4th century BC) - introduced the term "ethnos".
2. 13-ser. 15th century - the revival of interest in the culture of other peoples due to the invasion of the Mongol tribes.
Plano Carpeni: travel to Central and Central Asia to conclude diplomatic treaties. Marco Polo: travels to Central, East and South Asia.
1. ser. 15 - ser. 17th century - The era of great geographical discoveries.
Swimming of Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, colonial campaigns of England, Holland and other countries; information about the Moscow state appears; the knowledge of Europeans about the surrounding peoples is expanding.
4. late 17th-18th centuries - Age of Enlightenment.
At this time, many expeditions were organized; there is information about the Indians, the peoples of Australia and Oceania, the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, there is an interest in the culture of the European peasantry. The historical-comparative method of research (comparison of peoples) begins to be applied, and a scheme for the world-historical development of the peoples of the world begins to be developed, where backward peoples are the first steps.
5. 1 floor 19th century - the rapid growth of interest in the culture of the European peasantry, the growth of patriotism and romanticism. The mythological school is born.
The first scientific direction in ethnography - evolutionary school(mid 19th century).
Research was carried out in England, Italy, USA ...
Representatives: James Fraser, Adolf Bastian, Heinrich Morgan.
The object of study of evolutionists:
person or society;
Study of family and marriage relations;
The study of primitive beliefs and their evolution;
Periodization of primitive society;
The study of the evolutionary economy ...
Key Ideas:
the unity of the human race;
unilinearity of development from simple to complex;
the source of evolution is the constant action of various forces (the principles of natural selection, class struggle, the clash of contradictions, the accumulation of knowledge ...).
In parallel with the evolution school began to develop diffusionist school.
Germany became the center.
Representatives: Friedrich Ratzel, Leo Frobenius, Fritz Gröbner.
Object of study: culture as a result of the interaction of peoples.
Methods: mapping, cultural circles, field research.
Early 20th century - Freudianism or "psychoanalytic theory".
Representatives: Sigmund Freud, Carl Gusto Jung, Roheim.
Methods: psychoanalysis for the study of certain phenomena in human culture: totemism (belief in the supernatural relationship of a person with a plant, animal), taboo (a system of human prohibitions), exogamy (prohibition of marriages within a kindred group), endogamy (marriages within a kindred group).
- "Sociological school"(late 19th - early 20th century).
France was the center.
Object of study: society. Questions of the origin of religion were studied, collective ideas were studied, and features of primitive thinking were revealed.
Representatives: Emile Durkheim (founder), Marcel Mauss, Levi Bruhl.
- "Structural Functionalism"(early 20th century) England became the center. Representatives: Bronislav Malinovsky, Radcliffe-Brown, Levi-Strauss.
B. Malinovsky developed the theory of needs, the method of participant observation in the field, the comparative sociological method, the creation of social institutions. Radcliffe-Brown created a direction - social anthropology. He developed a comparatively sociological method and studied the network of social relations. Levi-Strauss is the founder of the direction of structuralism. He examined and studied the materials of mythology and folklore.
American School of Historical Ethnology "Boas School"(late 19th-early 20th centuries). Founder - Franz Boas. Within the framework of this school, the dynamics of culture, the relationship between man and culture, was studied.
Later, the American ethnopsychological school began to develop, and from the middle. 20th century – American Cultural Evolutionary School, neo-functionalism.
19th century - the formation of evolution in Russia as a science. In the middle of the 19th century, professional cadres appeared, and academies of sciences were established.
1845 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society was created, in which there were departments of geography, statistics and ethnography). Among the theoretical developments, the concept of economic and cultural types should be noted (Levin, Cheboksarov).
4. Ethnos. Main ethnic processes
Ethnos- a stable set of people historically established in a certain territory, having a common culture, language and psyche, as well as self-consciousness and self-name.
Main features:
Self-consciousness (attributing oneself to a certain people);
Self-name.
The main cultural symbol is language.
Types of ethnos (based on the quality and nature of historical ties):
1. Tribe based on imaginary or real blood relations. In the process of historical development, the tribes were united to strengthen the economic, cultural, ideological and territorial ties.
2. Nationality based on territorial ties. Subsequently, with the strengthening of cultural and economic ties, the fragmentation characteristic of the nationality is eliminated .
3. nations formed within the same state. It is characterized by a common economy, territory, language, cultural symbols and ideology.
A certain hierarchy or structure of ethnic formations is singled out.
Superethnos (Slavs)
Ethnos (Russians)
Subethnos (Pomors)
sub-ethnos are local groups.
Ethnofor- the carrier of ethnic properties.
5. Ethnogenesis. ethnic history. ethnic processes
Ethnogenesis- the process of forming an ethnos. Ethnogenesis includes both the initial stages of the emergence of any people, and the further formation of its ethnographic, linguistic and anthropological features.
There are three main components in ethnogenesis:
1. anthropogenesis (racial genesis) - the formation of racial characteristics;
2. glotogenesis - the formation of linguistic features;
3. cultural genesis - the formation of cultural characteristics.
ethnic processes- any changes in one or another component of the ethnos. If ethnic processes do not change the ethnos as a system as a whole, then they are called ethnoevolutionary, and if they change self-consciousness, then they are called ethno-transformational. They are divided into ethnic associations and divisions.
6. Races. Racial classification of the peoples of the world
Racial classification is based on physical differences between people that have historically developed in different natural and climatic conditions.
Race- a historically formed real group of people connected by a unity of origin, which is expressed in a complex of hereditary, morphological and physiological characteristics.
Morphological features include the shape and structure of the hair, the degree of development of the tertiary hairline, pigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, the structure of the skull and the dental system. Physiological features include: the structure of internal organs, blood type, etc. Large, small, mixed and transitional races are distinguished, and anthropological types are distinguished within the race: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, Australoid.
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