Eras of the earth in order. Geological history of the Earth – Knowledge Hypermarket

24.09.2019

Geological time and methods for determining it

In the study of the Earth as a unique cosmic object, the idea of its evolution occupies a central place, therefore an important quantitative-evolutionary parameter is geological time. This time is studied by a special science called Geochronology– geological chronology. Geochronology May be absolute and relative.

Note 1

Absolute geochronology deals with determining absolute age rocks, which is expressed in units of time and usually in millions of years.

The determination of this age is based on the decay rate of isotopes of radioactive elements. This speed is a constant value and does not depend on the intensity of physical and chemical processes. Age determination is based on methods nuclear physics. Minerals containing radioactive elements when formed crystal lattices, form a closed system. In this system, the accumulation of radioactive decay products occurs. As a result, the age of a mineral can be determined if the rate of this process is known. The half-life of radium, for example, is $1590$ years, and the complete decay of the element will occur in a time $10$ times longer than the half-life. Nuclear geochronology has its leading methods - lead, potassium-argon, rubidium-strontium and radiocarbon.

Methods of nuclear geochronology made it possible to determine the age of the planet, as well as the duration of eras and periods. Radiological time measurement proposed P. Curie and E. Rutherford at the beginning of the $XX$ century.

Relative geochronology operates with such concepts as “ early age, middle, late." There are several developed methods for determining the relative age of rocks. They are combined into two groups - paleontological and non-paleontological.

First play a major role due to their versatility and widespread use. The exception is the absence of organic remains in the rocks. Using paleontological methods, the remains of ancient extinct organisms are studied. Each layer of rocks is characterized by its own complex of organic remains. In each young layer there will be more remains of highly organized plants and animals. The higher the layer lies, the younger it is. A similar pattern was established by the Englishman W. Smith. He owned the first geological map of England, on which rocks were divided by age.

Non-paleontological methods determinations of the relative age of rocks are used in cases where they lack organic remains. More effective then will be stratigraphic, lithological, tectonic, geophysical methods. Using the stratigraphic method, it is possible to determine the sequence of bedding of layers during their normal occurrence, i.e. the underlying strata will be more ancient.

Note 3

The sequence of rock formation determines relative geochronology, and their age in time units is already determined absolute geochronology. Task geological time is to define chronological sequence geological events.

Geochronological table

To determine the age of rocks and study them, scientists use various methods, and for this purpose a special scale has been compiled. Geological time on this scale is divided into time intervals, each of which corresponds to a certain stage of formation earth's crust and development of living organisms. The scale was named geochronological table, which includes the following divisions: eon, era, period, epoch, age, time. Each geochronological unit is characterized by its own complex of deposits, which is called stratigraphic: eonothema, group, system, department, tier, zone. A group, for example, is a stratigraphic unit, and the corresponding temporary geochronological unit represents it era. Based on this, there are two scales - stratigraphic and geochronological. The first scale is used when talking about sediments, because at any period of time some geological events occurred on Earth. The second scale is needed to determine relative time. Since its adoption, the content of the scale has changed and been refined.

The largest stratigraphic units at present are eonothems - Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic. On the geochronological scale, they correspond to zones of varying duration. According to the time of existence on Earth, they are distinguished Archean and Proterozoic eonothems, covering almost $80$% of the time. Phanerozoic eon in time is significantly shorter than the previous eons and covers only $570$ million years. This ionoteme is divided into three main groups - Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.

The names of eonothems and groups are of Greek origin:

Archeos means the most ancient;
Protheros – primary;
Paleos – ancient;
Mesos – average;
Kainos is new.

From the word " zoiko s", which means vital, the word " zoy" Based on this, eras of life on the planet are distinguished, for example, the Mesozoic era means the era average life.

Eras and periods

According to the geochronological table, the history of the Earth is divided into five geological eras: Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic. In turn, eras are divided into periods. There are significantly more of them – $12$. The duration of the periods varies from $20$-$100$ million years. The latter indicates its incompleteness Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era, its duration is only $1.8$ million years.

Archean era. This time began after the formation of the earth's crust on the planet. By this time, there were mountains on Earth and the processes of erosion and sedimentation had come into play. The Archean lasted approximately $2$ billion years. This era is the longest in duration, during which volcanic activity was widespread on Earth, deep uplifts occurred, which resulted in the formation of mountains. Most of the fossils were destroyed under the influence of high temperature, pressure, and mass movement, but little data about that time was preserved. In rocks of the Archean era, pure carbon is found in dispersed form. Scientists believe that these are modified remains of animals and plants. If the amount of graphite reflects the amount of living matter, then there was a lot of it in the Archean.

Proterozoic era. This is the second era in duration, spanning $1$ billion years. Throughout the era, large amounts of sediment were deposited and one significant glaciation occurred. Ice sheets extended from the equator to $20$ degrees of latitude. Fossils found in the rocks of this time are evidence of the existence of life and its evolutionary development. Sponge spicules, remains of jellyfish, fungi, algae, arthropods, etc. were found in Proterozoic sediments.

Palaeozoic. Stands out in this era six periods:

Cambrian;
Ordovician,
Silur;
Devonian;
Carbon or coal;
Perm or Perm.

The duration of the Paleozoic is $370$ million years. During this time, representatives of all types and classes of animals appeared. There were only birds and mammals missing.

Mesozoic era. The era is divided into three period:

Triassic;

The era began approximately $230$ million years ago and lasted $167$ million years. During the first two periods - Triassic and Jurassic– most of the continental areas rose above sea level. The climate of the Triassic was dry and warm, and in the Jurassic it became even warmer, but was already humid. In state Arizona there is a famous stone forest that has existed since Triassic period. True, all that was left of the once mighty trees were trunks, logs and stumps. At the end of the Mesozoic era, or more precisely in the Cretaceous period, a gradual advance of the sea occurred on the continents. The North American continent sank at the end of the Cretaceous period and, as a result, the waters of the Gulf of Mexico connected with the waters of the Arctic basin. The mainland was divided into two parts. The end of the Cretaceous period is characterized by a large uplift, called Alpine orogeny. At this time, the Rocky Mountains, Alps, Himalayas, and Andes appeared. In the West North America intense volcanic activity began.

Cenozoic era. This new era, which has not yet ended and is currently ongoing.

The era was divided into three periods:

Paleogene;
Neogene;
Quaternary.

Quaternary The period has a number of unique features. This is the time of the final formation of the modern face of the Earth and the ice ages. Became independent New Guinea and Australia, moving closer to Asia. Antarctica remained in its place. Two Americas united. Of the three periods of the era, the most interesting is quaternary period or anthropogenic. It continues today, and was isolated in $1829 by a Belgian geologist J. Denoyer. Cold snaps are replaced by warming spells, but its most important feature is appearance of man.

Modern man lives in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era.

The history of planet Earth already goes back approximately 7 billion years. During this time, our common home has undergone significant changes, which was a consequence of changing periods. V chronological order reveal the entire history of the planet from its very appearance to the present day.

Geological chronology

The history of the Earth, presented in the form of eons, groups, periods and eras, is a certain grouped chronology. At the first international congresses of geology, a special chronological scale was developed, which represented the periodization of the Earth. Subsequently, this scale was replenished new information and changed, as a result, now it reflects everything geological periods in chronological order.

The largest divisions on this scale are eonothems, eras and periods.

Formation of the Earth

The geological periods of the Earth in chronological order begin their history precisely with the formation of the planet. Scientists have concluded that the Earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. The process of its formation itself was very long and may have begun 7 billion years ago from small cosmic particles. Over time, the gravitational force grew, and along with it, the speed of the bodies falling onto the forming planet increased. Kinetic energy transformed into heat, resulting in a gradual warming of the Earth.

The Earth's core, according to scientists, was formed over several hundred million years, after which the gradual cooling of the planet began. Currently, the molten core contains 30% of the Earth's mass. The development of other shells of the planet, according to scientists, has not yet been completed.

Precambrian eon

In the geochronology of the Earth, the first eon is called the Precambrian. It covers the time 4.5 billion - 600 million years ago. That is lion's share The history of the planet is covered first. However, this eon is divided into three more - Katarchean, Archean, Proterozoic. Moreover, often the first of them stands out as an independent eon.

At this time, the formation of land and water occurred. All this happened during active volcanic activity for almost the entire eon. The shields of all continents were formed in the Precambrian, but traces of life are very rare.

Catarchaean Eon

The beginning of the history of the Earth - half a billion years of its existence in science is called catarchaeum. The upper limit of this eon is located at around 4 billion years ago.

Popular literature portrays catarchaea as a time of active volcanic and geothermal changes on the Earth's surface. However, in reality this is not true.

The Catarchaean Eon is a time when volcanic activity did not manifest itself, and the surface of the Earth was a cold, inhospitable desert. Although earthquakes occurred quite often, which smoothed the landscape. The surface looked like dark gray primordial material covered with a layer of regolith. A day at that time was only 6 hours long.

Archean eon

The second main eon of four in the history of the Earth lasted about 1.5 billion years - 4-2.5 billion years ago. At that time, the Earth did not yet have an atmosphere, therefore there was no life yet, however, during this eon, bacteria appeared; due to the lack of oxygen, they were anaerobic. As a result of their activities, today we have deposits of natural resources such as iron, graphite, sulfur and nickel. The history of the term “archaea” dates back to 1872, when it was proposed by the famous American scientist J. Dan. The Archean eon, unlike the previous one, is characterized by high volcanic activity and erosion.

Proterozoic eon

If we consider geological periods in chronological order, the next billion years were occupied by the Proterozoic. This period is also characterized by high volcanic activity and sedimentation, and erosion continues over vast areas.

The formation of the so-called occurs. mountains Currently they are small hills on the plains. The rocks of this eon are very rich in mica, non-ferrous metal ores and iron.

It should be noted that in the Proterozoic period the first living beings appeared - simple microorganisms, algae and fungi. And by the end of the eon, worms, marine invertebrates, and mollusks appear.

Phanerozoic eon

All geological periods in chronological order can be divided into two types - obvious and hidden. Phanerozoic belongs to the obvious ones. At this time it appears a large number of living organisms with mineral skeletons. The era preceding the Phanerozoic was called hidden because practically no traces of it were found due to the lack of mineral skeletons.

The last about 600 million years of the history of our planet are called the Phanerozoic eon. The most significant events of this eon are the Cambrian explosion, which occurred approximately 540 million years ago, and the five largest extinctions in the history of the planet.

Eras of the Precambrian Eon

During the Katarchean and Archean there were no generally recognized eras and periods, so we will skip their consideration.

The Proterozoic consists of three large eras:

Paleoproterozoic- i.e. ancient, including the Siderian, Rhiasian period, Orosirium and Staterium. By the end of this era, oxygen concentrations in the atmosphere had reached modern levels.

Mesoproterozoic- average. Consists of three periods - potassium, ectasia and sthenia. During this era, algae and bacteria reached their greatest prosperity.

Neoproterozoic- new, consisting of Thonium, Cryogenium and Ediacaran. At this time, the formation of the first supercontinent, Rodinia, occurred, but then the plates diverged again. The coldest ice age occurred during an era called the Mesoproterozoic, during which much of the planet froze.

Eras of the Phanerozoic eon

This eon consists of three large eras, sharply different from each other:

Paleozoic, or era ancient life. It began approximately 600 million years ago and ended 230 million years ago. The Paleozoic consists of 7 periods:

Cambrian (a temperate climate was formed on Earth, the landscape was lowland, during this period the birth of all modern types animals).
Ordovician (the climate throughout the planet is quite warm, even in Antarctica, while the land subsides significantly. The first fish appear).
Silurian period (large inland seas are formed, while the lowlands become drier due to the rise of land. The development of fish continues. The Silurian period is marked by the appearance of the first insects).
Devonian (appearance of the first amphibians and forests).
Lower Carboniferous (dominance of pteridophytes, distribution of sharks).
Upper and Middle Carboniferous (appearance of the first reptiles).
Perm (most ancient animals die out).

Mesozoic, or the time of reptiles. Geological history consists of three periods:

Triassic (seed ferns die out, gymnosperms dominate, the first dinosaurs and mammals appear).
Jurassic (part of Europe and western America covered with shallow seas, appearance of the first toothed birds).
Chalk (appearance of maple and oak forests, the highest development and extinction of dinosaurs and toothed birds).

Cenozoic, or the time of mammals. Consists of two periods:

Tertiary. At the beginning of the period, predators and ungulates reach their dawn, the climate is warm. Forests are expanding to their maximum extent, and ancient mammals are dying out. Approximately 25 million years ago, humans appeared and in the Pliocene era.
Quaternary. Pleistocene - large mammals die out, emerge human society, 4 ice ages occur, many plant species die out. Modern era - the last ice age ends, the climate gradually takes on its current form. The primacy of man on the entire planet.

The geological history of our planet has a long and contradictory development. In this process there were several extinctions of living organisms, repeated ice ages, there were periods of high volcanic activity, there were eras of dominance of different organisms: from bacteria to humans. The history of the Earth began approximately 7 billion years ago, it was formed about 4.5 billion years ago, and just less than a million years ago, man ceased to have competitors in all living nature.

I have long been interested in the history of our planet. After all, the world we see today was not always like this. It is difficult to even imagine what was on our planet many millions or even several billion years ago. Each period was characterized by some of its own characteristics.

What were the main eras and periods on our planet?

I’ll touch a little on the topic of eras and periods in general outline. So, scientists divide all 4.5 billion years like this.

The Precambrian Era (Catarchaean, Archean and Proterozoic periods) - in terms of duration, this is the longest era, which lasted almost 4 billion years.
The Paleozoic era (includes six periods) lasted a little less than 290 million years, at which time the conditions for life were finally formed, first in water and then on land.
The Mesozoic era (includes three periods) is the era of reptile dominance on our planet.
The Cenozoic era (consists of the Paleogene, Neogene and Anthropocene periods) - we now live in this era, and to be more specific, in the Anthropocene.

Each era usually ended with some kind of cataclysm.

Mesozoic era

Almost everyone knows about this era, because many have seen the American film “Jurassic Park”, in which they appear different breeds dinosaurs. Yes, yes, these were the animals that dominated at that time.

The Mesozoic consists of the following segments:

Triassic;
Jurassic;
chalky.

During the Jurassic period, dinosaurs reached their greatest development. There were giant species that reached a length of up to thirty meters. There were also very large and tall trees, and there was minimal vegetation on the ground. Ferns predominated among low-growing plants.

At the beginning of this era there was a single continent, but then it split into six parts, which over time took on its modern appearance.

Two million years before the extinction of the dinosaurs, the most formidable predator appeared - the Tyrannosaurus. And these reptiles became extinct after the earth collided with a comet. As a result, approximately 65% of all life on the planet died.

This era ended approximately sixty-five million years ago.

Hello! In this article I want to tell you about the geochronological column. This is a column of periods of the Earth's development. And also in more detail about each era, thanks to which you can paint a picture of the formation of the Earth throughout its history. What types of life appeared first, how they changed, and how much it took.

The geological history of the Earth is divided into large intervals - eras, eras are divided into periods, periods are divided into epochs. This division was associated with events that took place on. Changes in the abiotic environment influenced the evolution of the organic world on Earth.

Geological eras of the Earth, or geochronological scale:

And now about everything in more detail:

Designations:
Eras;
Periods;
Epochs.

1. Catarchaean era (from the creation of the Earth, about 5 billion years ago, to the origin of life);

2. Archean era , the most ancient era (3.5 billion - 1.9 billion years ago);

3. Proterozoic era (1.9 billion – 570 million years ago);

The Archean and Proterozoic are still combined into the Precambrian. The Precambrian covers most most geological time. Areas of land and sea were formed, and active volcanic activity occurred. Shields of all continents were formed from Precambrian rocks. Traces of life are usually rare.

4. Palaeozoic (570 million - 225 million years ago) with such periods :

Cambrian period(from the Latin name for Wales)(570 million – 480 million years ago);

The transition to the Cambrian was marked by the unexpected appearance huge amount fossils. This is a sign of the beginning of the Paleozoic era. Marine flora and fauna flourished in numerous shallow seas. Trilobites were especially widespread.

Ordovician period(from the British Ordovician tribe)(480 million – 420 million years ago);

Much of the Earth was soft, and most of the surface was still covered by seas. Accumulation continued sedimentary rocks, mountain building took place. There were reef-formers. There is an abundance of corals, sponges and mollusks.

Silurian (from the British Silure tribe)(420 million - 400 million years ago);

Dramatic events in the history of the Earth began with the development of jawless fish-like fish (the first vertebrates), which appeared in the Ordovician. Another significant event was the appearance of the first terrestrial animals in the Late Silurian.

Devonian (from Devonshire in England)(400 million – 320 million years ago);

In the Early Devonian, mountain-building movements reached their peak, but basically it was a period of spasmodic development. The first seed plants settled on land. A large variety and number of fish-like species were noted, and the first terrestrial animals developed. animals- amphibians.

Carboniferous or Carboniferous period (from the abundance of coal in the seams) (320 million – 270 million years ago);

Mountain building, folding, and erosion continued. In North America, swampy forests and river deltas were flooded, and large coal deposits were formed. The southern continents were covered by glaciation. Insects spread rapidly, and the first reptiles appeared.

Permian period (from the Russian city of Perm)(270 million – 225 million years ago);

On a large part of Pangea - the supercontinent that united everything - conditions prevailed. Reptiles spread widely and modern insects evolved. New terrestrial flora developed, including conifers. Several marine species have disappeared.

5. Mesozoic era (225 million - 70 million years ago) with such periods:

Triassic (from the tripartite division of the period proposed in Germany)(225 million – 185 million years ago);

With the onset of the Mesozoic era, Pangea began to disintegrate. On land, the dominance of conifers was established. Diversity among reptiles was noted, with the first dinosaurs and giant marine reptiles appearing. Primitive mammals evolved.

Jurassic period(from mountains in Europe)(185 million – 140 million years ago);

Significant volcanic activity was associated with the formation of the Atlantic Ocean. Dinosaurs dominated on land, flying reptiles and primitive birds conquered the air ocean. There are traces of the first flowering plants.

Cretaceous period (from the word "chalk")(140 million – 70 million years ago);

During the maximum expansion of the seas, chalk was deposited, especially in Britain. The dominance of dinosaurs continued until the extinction of them and other species at the end of the period.

6. Cenozoic era (70 million years ago - up to our time) with such periods And epochs:

Paleogene period (70 million – 25 million years ago);

— Paleotse new era(“the oldest part of the new era”)(70 million – 54 million years ago);
— Eocene Epoch ("dawn of a new era")(54 million – 38 million years ago);
— Oligocene Epoch ("not very new")(38 million – 25 million years ago);

Neogene period (25 million – 1 million years ago);

— Miocene Epoch ("relatively new")(25 million – 8 million years ago);
— Pliocene Epoch ("very recent")(8 million – 1 million years ago);

The Paleocene and Neogene periods are still combined into the Tertiary period. With the onset of the Cenozoic era (new life), mammals began to spread spasmodically. Many have developed large species, although many became extinct. The number of flowering plants has increased sharply plants. As the climate cooled, herbaceous plants appeared. There was a significant uplift of the land.

Quaternary period (1 million – our time);

— Pleistocene epoch (“most recent”)(1 million – 20 thousand years ago);

— Holocene era(“a completely new era”) (20 thousand years ago – our time).

This is the last geological period that includes the present time. Four major glaciations alternated with warming periods. The number of mammals has increased; they have adapted to . The formation of man - the future ruler of the Earth - took place.

There are also other ways of dividing eras, epochs, periods, eons are added to them, and some epochs are still divided, like on this table, for example.

But this table is more complex, the confusing dating of some eras is purely chronological, not based on stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is the science of determining the relative geological age of sedimentary rocks, the division of rock strata, and the correlation of various geological formations.

This division, of course, is relative, since there was no sharp distinction from today to tomorrow in these divisions.

But still, at the turn of neighboring eras and periods, significant geological transformations predominantly took place: processes of mountain formation, redistribution of seas, changing of the climate etc.

Each subsection was, of course, characterized by its unique flora and fauna.

, And You can read it in the same section.

Thus, these are the main eras of the Earth on which all scientists rely 🙂

According to modern ideas, has an age of 4.5 - 5 billion years. In the history of its occurrence, planetary and geological stages are distinguished.

Geological stage- sequence of events in the development of the Earth as planets since the formation of the earth's crust. During it, relief forms arose and were destroyed, the land submerged under water (the advance of the sea), the retreat of the sea, glaciations, the appearance and disappearance of various types animals and plants, etc.

Scientists, trying to reconstruct the history of the planet, study rock layers. They divide all deposits into 5 groups, distinguishing the following eras: Archean (ancient), Proterozoic (early), Paleozoic (ancient), Mesozoic (middle) and Cenozoic (new). The border between eras passes through the largest evolutionary events. The last three eras are divided into periods because in these deposits the remains of animals and plant remains were better preserved and in greater quantity.

Each era is characterized by events that had a decisive influence on modern life. relief.

Archean era was distinguished by violent volcanic activity, as a result of which igneous granite-containing rocks appeared on the surface of the Earth - the basis of future continents. At that time, the Earth was inhabited only by microorganisms that could live without oxygen. It is believed that the sediments of that era cover individual areas of land with an almost continuous shield; they contain a lot of iron, gold, silver, platinum and ores of other metals.

IN Proterozoic era Volcanic activity was also high, and mountains of the so-called Baikal fold were formed. They have practically not been preserved and now represent only isolated small uplifts on the plains. During this period, the planet was inhabited by blue-green algae and protozoan microorganisms, and the first multicellular organisms arose. Proterozoic rock layers are rich in minerals: iron ores and ores of non-ferrous metals, mica.

At first Paleozoic era formed mountains Caledonian folding, which led to the reduction of sea basins and the emergence of large areas of land. Only isolated ridges of the Urals, Arabia, Southeast China and Central Europe. All these mountains are low, “worn out”. In the second half of the Paleozoic, the mountains of the Hercynian fold were formed. This era of mountain building was more powerful; vast mountain ranges arose in the territory Western Siberia and the Urals, Mongolia and Manchuria, most of Central Europe, the east coast of North America and Australia. Now they are represented by low blocky mountains. In the Paleozoic era, the Earth was inhabited by fish, amphibians and reptiles, and algae predominated among the vegetation. The main deposits of oil and coal arose during this period.

Mesozoic era began with a period of relative calm of the internal forces of the Earth, the gradual destruction of previously created mountain systems and submergence of flattened flat areas, such as most of Western Siberia. In the second half of the era, mountains of Mesozoic folding were formed. At this time, extensive mountainous countries, which even now have the appearance of mountains. These are the Cordillera mountains Eastern Siberia, certain areas of Tibet and Indochina. The ground was covered with lush vegetation, which gradually died and rotted. In a hot and humid climate, swamps and peat bogs were actively formed. This was the age of the dinosaurs. Giant predatory and herbivorous animals have spread throughout almost the entire planet. The first mammals appeared at this time.

Cenozoic era continues to this day. Its beginning was marked by an increase in the activity of the Earth's internal forces, which led to a general rise of the surface. During the era of Alpine folding, young folded mountains arose within the Alpine-Himalayan belt and the continent of Eurasia acquired its modern shape. In addition, there was a rejuvenation of the ancient mountain ranges of the Urals, Appalachians, Tien Shan, and Altai. The climate on the planet changed sharply, and a period of powerful ice sheets began. Ice sheets advancing from the north changed the topography of the continents of the Northern Hemisphere, forming hilly plains with a large number of lakes.

The entire geological history of the Earth can be traced on a geochronological scale - a table of geological time, showing the sequence and subordination of the main stages of geology, the history of the Earth and the development of life on it (see Table 4 on pp. 46-49). The geochronological table should be read from bottom to top.

Questions and tasks to prepare for the exam

1. Explain why polar days and nights are observed on Earth.
2. What would conditions be like on Earth if its axis of rotation were not inclined to the orbital plane?
3. The change of seasons on Earth is determined by two main reasons: the first is the rotation of the Earth around the Sun; name the second one.
4. How many times a year and when is the Sun at its zenith above the equator? Over the Northern Tropic? Over the South Tropic?
5. In what direction do constant winds deviate in the Northern Hemisphere and sea currents, moving in the meridional direction?
6. When is the shortest night in the Northern Hemisphere?
7. What are the characteristics of the days of the spring and autumn equinoxes on Earth? When do they occur in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres?
8. When are the days of summer and winter solstice in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres?
9. In what light zones is the territory of our country located?
10. List the geological periods of the Cenozoic era, starting with the most ancient.

Table 4

Geochronological scale

Eras (duration - in million years)	Periods (duration in million years)	Major events history of the earth	Characteristic minerals formed in given time
1	2	3	4
Cenozoic 70 million years	Quaternary 2 Ma (Q)	General rise of land. Repeated glaciations, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. The emergence of man	Peat, placer deposits of gold, diamonds, precious stones
	Neogene 25 Ma (N)	The emergence of young mountains in areas of Alpine folding. Rejuvenation of mountains in areas of all ancient folds. Dominance of flowering plants	Brown coals, oil, amber
	Paleogene 41 Ma (P)	Destruction of the mountains of Mesozoic folding. Widespread development of flowering plants, birds and mammals	Phosphorites, brown coals, bauxites

Mesozoic 165 million years	Cretaceous 70 Ma (K)	The emergence of young mountains in areas of Mesozoic folding. Extinction of giant reptiles (dinosaurs). Development of birds and mammals	Oil, oil shale, chalk, coal, phosphorites
	Jurassic 50 Ma (J)	Education modern oceans. Hot and humid climate over most of the land. The rise of giant reptiles (dinosaurs). Dominance of gymnosperms	Hard coals, oil, phosphorites
	Triassic 40 Ma (T)	The greatest retreat of the sea and rise of land in the entire history of the Earth. Destruction of the mountains of the Caledonian and Hercynian folds. Vast deserts. First mammals	Rock salts
1	2	3	4
Paleozoic 330 Ma	Permian 45 Ma (P)	The emergence of young folded mountains in the areas of the Hercynian fold. Dry climate over most of the land. The emergence of gymnosperms	Rock and potassium salts, gypsum
	Carboniferous 65 Ma (C)	Hot and humid climate over most of the land. Widespread marshy lowlands in coastal areas. Forests of tree ferns. The first reptiles, the rise of amphibians	Coal, oil
	Devonian 55 Ma (r)	Hot climate over most of the land. The first deserts. The appearance of amphibians. Numerous fish	Salts, oil
	Silurian 35 Ma (S)	The emergence of young folded mountains in the areas of the Caledonian folding. The first land plants (mosses and ferns)

	Ordovician 60 Ma (O)	Reducing the area of sea basins. Appearance of the first terrestrial invertebrates
	Cambrian 70 Ma	The emergence of young mountains in the areas of the Baikal fold. Flooding of vast areas by seas. The flourishing of marine invertebrates	Rock salt, gypsum, phosphorites
Proterozoic era 600 million years		The beginning of the Baikal folding. Powerful volcanism. Development of bacteria and blue-green algae	Iron ores, mica, graphite
Archean era 900 million years		Formation of the continental crust. Intense volcanic activity. The time of primitive single-celled bacteria	Ore

Maksakovsky V.P., Petrova N.N., Physical and economic geography of the world. - M.: Iris-press, 2010. - 368 pp.: ill.

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