Average density of rocks in the earth's crust. Chemical composition of the earth's crust

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..2

1. Structure of the Earth……………………………………………………………….3

2. Composition of the earth’s crust………………………………………………………...5

3.1. State of the Earth………………………………………………………...7

3.2.State of the earth’s crust……………………………………………………...8

List of used literature………………………….………………10

Introduction

The Earth's crust is the outer hard shell of the Earth (geosphere). Below the crust is the mantle, which differs in composition and physical properties - it is denser and contains mainly refractory elements. The crust and mantle are separated by the Mohorovicic boundary, or Moho for short, where there is a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities. On the outside, most of the crust is covered by the hydrosphere, and the smaller part is exposed to the atmosphere.

There is a crust on most terrestrial planets, the Moon and many satellites of the giant planets. In most cases it consists of basalts. The Earth is unique in that it has two types of crust: continental and oceanic.

1. Structure of the Earth

Most of the Earth's surface (up to 71%) is occupied by the World Ocean. The average depth of the World Ocean is 3900 m. The existence of sedimentary rocks whose age exceeds 3.5 billion years serves as evidence of the existence of vast bodies of water on Earth already at that distant time. On modern continents, plains are more common, mainly low-lying ones, and mountains - especially high ones - occupy a small part of the planet's surface, as well as deep-sea depressions at the bottom of the oceans. The shape of the Earth, as is known, is close to spherical, but with more detailed measurements it turns out to be very complex, even if we outline it with a flat ocean surface (not distorted by tides, winds, currents) and the conditional continuation of this surface under the continents. The irregularities are maintained by the uneven distribution of mass in the Earth's interior.

One of the features of the Earth is its magnetic field, thanks to which we can use a compass. The Earth's magnetic pole, to which the north end of the compass needle is attracted, does not coincide with the geographic North Pole. Under the influence of the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field is distorted and acquires a “trail” in the direction from the Sun, which extends for hundreds of thousands of kilometers.

The internal structure of the Earth is, first of all, judged by the characteristics of the passage of mechanical vibrations through the various layers of the Earth that occur during earthquakes or explosions. Valuable information is also provided by measurements of the magnitude of the heat flow emerging from the depths, the results of determinations of the total mass, moment of inertia and polar compression of our planet. The mass of the Earth is found from experimental measurements of the physical constant of gravity and the acceleration of gravity. For the mass of the Earth, the value obtained is 5.967 1024 kg. Based on a whole complex of scientific research, a model of the internal structure of the Earth was built.

The solid shell of the Earth is the lithosphere. It can be compared to a shell covering the entire surface of the Earth. But this “shell” seems to have cracked into pieces and consists of several large lithospheric plates, slowly moving one relative to the other. The overwhelming number of earthquakes is concentrated along their boundaries. The upper layer of the lithosphere is the earth's crust, the minerals of which consist mainly of silicon and aluminum oxides, iron oxides and alkali metals. The earth's crust has an uneven thickness: 35-65 km on the continents and 6-8 km under the ocean floor. The upper layer of the earth's crust consists of sedimentary rocks, the lower layer of basalts. Between them there is a layer of granites, characteristic only of the continental crust. Under the crust is the so-called mantle, which has a different chemical composition and greater density. The boundary between the crust and mantle is called the Mohorovic surface. In it, the speed of propagation of seismic waves increases abruptly. At a depth of 120-250 km under the continents and 60-400 km under the oceans lies a layer of mantle called the asthenosphere. Here the substance is in a state close to melting, its viscosity is greatly reduced. All lithospheric plates seem to float in a semi-liquid asthenosphere, like ice floes in water. Thicker sections of the earth's crust, as well as areas consisting of less dense rocks, rise relative to other sections of the crust. At the same time, additional load on a section of the crust, for example, due to the accumulation of a thick layer of continental ice, as happens in Antarctica, leads to a gradual subsidence of the section. This phenomenon is called isostatic equalization. Below the asthenosphere, starting from a depth of about 410 km, the “packing” of atoms in mineral crystals is compacted under the influence of high pressure. The sharp transition was discovered by seismic research methods at a depth of about 2920 km. This is where the earth's core begins, or, more precisely, the outer core, since at its center there is another one - the inner core, the radius of which is 1250 km. The outer core is obviously in a liquid state, since transverse waves, which do not propagate in liquid, do not pass through it. The origin of the Earth's magnetic field is associated with the existence of a liquid outer core. The inner core appears to be solid. At the lower boundary of the mantle, the pressure reaches 130 GPa, the temperature there is no higher than 5000 K. In the center of the Earth, the temperature may rise above 10,000 K.

2. Composition of the earth's crust

The earth's crust consists of several layers, the thickness and structure of which vary within the oceans and continents. In this regard, oceanic, continental and intermediate types of the earth's crust are distinguished, which will be described further.

Based on their composition, the earth's crust is usually divided into three layers - sedimentary, granite and basalt.

The sedimentary layer is composed of sedimentary rocks, which are the product of destruction and redeposition of material from the lower layers. Although this layer covers the entire surface of the Earth, it is so thin in places that one can practically speak of its discontinuity. At the same time, sometimes it reaches a power of several kilometers.

The granite layer is composed mainly of igneous rocks formed as a result of the solidification of molten magma, among which varieties rich in silica (acidic rocks) predominate. This layer, which reaches a thickness of 15-20 km on continents, is greatly reduced under the oceans and may even be completely absent.

The basalt layer is also composed of igneous material, but it is poorer in silica (basic rocks) and has a higher specific gravity. This layer is developed at the base of the earth's crust in all areas of the globe.

The continental type of the earth's crust is characterized by the presence of all three layers and is much thicker than the oceanic one.

The earth's crust is the main object of study of geology. The earth's crust consists of a very diverse range of rocks, consisting of equally diverse minerals. When studying a rock, first of all, its chemical and mineralogical composition is examined. However, this is not enough to fully understand the rock. Rocks of different origins and, consequently, different conditions of occurrence and distribution may have the same chemical and mineralogical composition.

The structure of a rock is understood as the size, composition and shape of the mineral particles composing it and the nature of their connection with each other. Different types of structures are distinguished depending on whether the rock is composed of crystals or an amorphous substance, what the size of the crystals is (whole crystals or fragments of them are part of the rock), what the degree of rounding of the fragments is, whether the mineral grains forming the rock are completely unrelated to each other or they are soldered together with some kind of cementing substance, directly fused with each other, sprouted each other, etc.

Texture refers to the relative arrangement of the components that make up the rock, or the way they fill the space occupied by the rock. Examples of textures can be: layered, when the rock consists of alternating layers of different composition and structure, schistose, when the rock easily breaks up into thin tiles, massive, porous, solid, bubbly, etc.

The form of occurrence of rocks refers to the shape of the bodies they form in the earth's crust. For some rocks these are layers, i.e. relatively thin bodies bounded by parallel surfaces; for others - cores, rods, etc.

The classification of rocks is based on their genesis, i.e. method of origin. There are three large groups of rocks: igneous, or igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks are formed during the solidification of silicate melts located in the depths of the earth's crust under high pressure. These melts are called magma (from the Greek word for “ointment”). In some cases, magma penetrates into the thickness of the underlying rocks and solidifies at a greater or lesser depth, in others it solidifies, pouring out onto the surface of the Earth in the form of lava.

Sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of the destruction of pre-existing rocks on the Earth's surface and the subsequent deposition and accumulation of the products of this destruction.

Metamorphic rocks are the result of metamorphism, i.e. transformation of pre-existing igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of a sharp increase in temperature, an increase or change in the nature of pressure (change from confining pressure to oriented pressure), as well as under the influence of other factors.

3.1. State of the Earth

The condition of the earth is characterized by temperature, humidity, physical structure and chemical composition. Human activities and the functioning of flora and fauna can improve or worsen the state of the earth. The main processes of impact on land are: irreversible withdrawal from agricultural activities; temporary seizure; mechanical impact; addition of chemical and organic elements; involvement of additional territories in agricultural activities (drainage, irrigation, deforestation, reclamation); heating; self-renewal.

3.1. Condition of the earth's crust

Recently, a very complex picture of the distribution of compressive and tensile stress fields has been observed, identified by the Chinese geologist H.S. Liu (1978) and associated with the interaction of different sized crustal plates, which causes the formation of strike-slip faults in which the edges of the plates slide past each other. According to calculations by P.N. Kropotkin, areas of the earth's crust affected by tension do not exceed 2% of the total area, and the rest of it is in a state of compression.

The global picture of the stressed state of the earth’s crust, revealed through the efforts of researchers from different countries in recent decades, has given a lot for understanding the tone of the lithosphere, as S.I. figuratively noted. Sherman and Yu.I. Dneprovsky (1989). This tone has a direct impact on the geological processes occurring at the present time, and primarily on seismological ones, which allows us to raise the question of long-term earthquake forecasts.

What is the reason for the almost universal compression observed in the earth's crust? One possible explanation is to recognize a short-term decrease in the Earth's radius, which provides the compression effect. In order to prove a change in the Earth's radius, accurate data on variations in gravity, fluctuations in the Earth's rotation rate, and Chandler pole wobbles are needed. Satisfactory data on these issues are currently insufficient, and, therefore, the possibility of a reduction in the radius of the Earth is still considered a hypothesis.

There are methods for identifying not only modern, but also ancient stress fields, which makes it possible to understand many geological patterns, for example, the location of ore deposits, almost always associated with stretching areas (Fig. 4). Knowing the location of such zones in past eras, it is possible to predict the search for ore minerals. The same applies to seismicity. For example, American geologists M.D. Zobak and M.L. Zoback proved that paleoseismic zones inside the North American plate were very active in historical times, although they are now dormant. A change in the stress field can cause a new activation and resumption of earthquakes.

The efforts of scientists are now aimed at drawing up special maps showing the orientation of the axes of the main stresses; in addition, it is important to isolate the components of the stress field of different ranks. Vigorous technogenic human activity: the creation of huge reservoirs, pumping out colossal volumes of gas, oil, water from the bowels of the earth, the development of deep quarries - all this disrupts the natural stress fields and the existing dynamic balance in the earth's crust, especially its upper part. Therefore, it is necessary to observe modern stress fields, including precise instrumental methods.

Bibliography

1. Alekseenko V.A. Environmental geochemistry. – M.: Logos, 2000. – 627 p.

2. Kropotkin P.N. Tectonic stresses in the earth’s crust // Geotectonics. 1996. No. 2. P. 3-5.

3. Stressed state of the earth's crust: (According to measurements in rock masses). M.: Nauka, 1973. 188 p.

4. Zhukov M.M., Slavin V.I., Dunaeva N.N. Fundamentals of Geology. – M.: Gosgeoltekhizdat, 1961.

5. Leyall Ch. Basic principles of geology or the latest changes in the earth and its inhabitants. – Translated from English, TT. I II, 1986.

Earth's crust- the thin upper shell of the Earth, which has a thickness of 40-50 km on the continents, 5-10 km under the oceans and makes up only about 1% of the Earth’s mass.

Eight elements - oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium - form 99.5% of the earth's crust.

On continents, the crust is three-layered: sedimentary rocks cover granite rocks, and granite rocks overlie basaltic rocks. Under the oceans the crust is of the “oceanic”, two-layer type; sedimentary rocks simply lie on basalts, there is no granite layer. There is also a transitional type of the earth's crust (island-arc zones on the margins of the oceans and some areas on continents, for example).

The earth's crust is greatest in mountainous regions (under the Himalayas - over 75 km), average in platform areas (under the West Siberian Lowland - 35-40, within the Russian Platform - 30-35), and least in the central regions of the oceans (5-7 km).

The predominant part of the earth's surface is the plains of continents and the ocean floor. The continents are surrounded by a shelf - a shallow strip with a depth of up to 200 g and an average width of about SO km, which, after a sharp steep bend of the bottom, turns into a continental slope (the slope varies from 15-17 to 20-30° ). The slopes gradually level out and turn into abyssal plains (depths 3.7-6.0 km). The oceanic trenches have the greatest depths (9-11 km), the vast majority of which are located on the northern and western outskirts.

The earth's crust formed gradually: first a basalt layer was formed, then a granite layer; the sedimentary layer continues to form to this day.

The deep strata of the lithosphere, which are studied by geophysical methods, have a rather complex and still insufficiently studied structure, just like the mantle and core of the Earth. But it is already known that the density of rocks increases with depth, and if on the surface it averages 2.3-2.7 g/cm3, then at a depth of about 400 km it is 3.5 g/cm3, and at a depth of 2900 km ( boundary of the mantle and the outer core) - 5.6 g/cm3. In the center of the core, where the pressure reaches 3.5 thousand t/cm2, it increases to 13-17 g/cm3. The nature of the increase in the Earth's deep temperature has also been established. At a depth of 100 km it is approximately 1300 K, at a depth of approximately 3000 km -4800 K, and in the center of the earth's core - 6900 K.

The predominant part of the Earth's substance is in a solid state, but at the boundary of the earth's crust and the upper mantle (depths of 100-150 km) lies a layer of softened, pasty rocks. This thickness (100-150 km) is called the asthenosphere. Geophysicists believe that other parts of the Earth may also be in a rarefied state (due to decompression, active radio decay of rocks, etc.), in particular, the zone of the outer core. The inner core is in the metallic phase, but today there is no consensus regarding its material composition.

The Earth's crust is the hard surface layer of our planet. It was formed billions of years ago and constantly changes its appearance under the influence of external and internal forces. Part of it is hidden under water, the other forms land. The earth's crust is made up of various chemicals. Let's find out which ones.

Surface of the planet

Hundreds of millions of years after the Earth's origins, its outer layer of boiling molten rock began to cool and formed the Earth's crust. The surface changed from year to year. Cracks, mountains, and volcanoes appeared on it. The wind smoothed them out, so that after a while they appeared again, but in different places.

Thanks to the external and internal, the solid layer of the planet is heterogeneous. From the point of view of structure, the following elements of the earth's crust can be distinguished:

• geosynclines or folded areas;
• platforms;
• marginal faults and troughs.

The platforms are vast, low-moving areas. Their upper layer (to a depth of 3-4 km) is covered by sedimentary rocks that occur in horizontal layers. The lower level (foundation) is severely crumpled. It is composed of metamorphic rocks and may contain igneous inclusions.

Geosynclines are tectonically active areas where mountain building processes occur. They arise at the junction of the ocean floor and the continental platform, or in the trough of the ocean floor between the continents.

If mountains form close to a platform boundary, marginal faults and troughs may occur. They reach up to 17 kilometers in depth and stretch along the mountain formation. Over time, sedimentary rocks accumulate here and mineral deposits are formed (oil, rock and potassium salts, etc.).

Composition of the bark

The mass of the bark is 2.8 1019 tons. This is only 0.473% of the mass of the entire planet. The content of substances in it is not as diverse as in the mantle. It is formed by basalts, granites and sedimentary rocks.

99.8% of the earth's crust consists of eighteen elements. The rest account for only 0.2%. The most common are oxygen and silicon, which make up the bulk of the mass. In addition to them, the bark is rich in aluminum, iron, potassium, calcium, sodium, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, chlorine, nitrogen, fluorine, etc. The content of these substances can be seen in the table:

Item name
Oxygen
Aluminum
Manganese

The rarest element is considered to be astatine, an extremely unstable and toxic substance. Rare minerals also include tellurium, indium, and thallium. They are often scattered and do not contain large concentrations in one place.

Continental crust

Continental or continental crust is what we commonly call land. It is quite old and covers about 40% of the entire planet. Many of its areas reach an age of 2 to 4.4 billion years.

The continental crust consists of three layers. It is covered on top by a discontinuous sedimentary cover. The rocks in it lie in layers or strata, as they are formed due to the compression and compaction of salt sediments or microorganism residues.

The lower and more ancient layer is represented by granites and gneisses. They are not always hidden under sedimentary rocks. In some places they come to the surface in the form of crystalline shields.

The lowest layer consists of metamorphic rocks like basalts and granulites. The basalt layer can reach 20-35 kilometers.

Oceanic crust

The part of the earth's crust hidden under the waters of the World Ocean is called oceanic. It is thinner and younger than the continental one. The age of the crust is less than two hundred million years, and its thickness is approximately 7 kilometers.

The continental crust is composed of sedimentary rocks from deep-sea remains. Below is a basalt layer 5-6 kilometers thick. Below it begins the mantle, represented here mainly by peridotites and dunites.

Every hundred million years the crust is renewed. It is absorbed in subduction zones and formed again at mid-ocean ridges with the help of minerals that come out.

§ 8.1. Shape and structure of the Earth

Shape of the Earth

The earth is the arena where civilizations arise, develop and perish, and the formation of a single modern society takes place. Our future largely depends on how well we understand the structure of our planet. However, we know no more about it (and often significantly less) than about distant stars.
Let's start with ideas about the shape of the Earth. Currently, no one denies the claim that our planet is “round”. Indeed, to a first approximation, the shape of the Earth is defined as spherical. This idea originated in Ancient Greece. And only in the XVII-XVIII centuries. it began to become more precise. It was found that the Earth is flattened along its axis of rotation (the difference between the axes is about 21 km). It is assumed that the Earth was formed under the influence of the combined action of gravity and centrifugal forces. The resultant of these forces - gravity - is expressed in the acceleration that each body acquires at the surface of the Earth. Already I. Newton theoretically substantiated the position according to which the Earth should be compressed in the direction of the axis of rotation and take the shape of an ellipsoid, which was subsequently confirmed empirically. Later it was discovered that the Earth is compressed not only at the poles, but to a small extent also at the equator. The largest and smallest radii of the equator differ by 213 m, i.e. The earth is a triaxial ellipsoid. But the idea of ​​the Earth as an ellipsoid is also correct only to a first approximation.
The actual surface of the Earth is even more complex. Closest to the modern figure of the Earth geoid is an imaginary level surface with respect to which the gravity vector is everywhere directed perpendicularly. In the area of ​​​​the oceans, the geoid coincides with the surface of the water, which is at complete rest. The discrepancy between the geoid and the ellipsoid in some places reaches ±(100-150) m, which is explained by the uneven distribution of masses of different densities in the Earth’s body, which affects the change in gravity, and therefore the shape of the geoid. Currently, to create a geodetic basis for maps and other purposes in Russia, Krasovsky’s ellipsoid is used with the following basic parameters: equatorial radius 6378.245 km; polar radius 6356.863 km; polar compression 1/298.25; The Earth's surface area is about 510 million km2, its volume is 1.083 1012 km3. The mass of the Earth is 5.976 1027 g.

Internal structure of the Earth

Let us note that only the uppermost (down to depths of 15–20 km) horizons of the earth’s crust, reaching the surface or exposed by mines, mines and boreholes, are accessible to direct observation. Judgments about the composition and physical state of deeper shells are based on data from geophysical methods, i.e. are speculative. Of these methods, the seismic method is of particular importance, based on recording the speed of propagation in the Earth's body of waves caused by earthquakes or artificial explosions. In the foci of earthquakes, so-called longitudinal seismic waves arise, which are considered as a reaction of the environment to a change in volume, and transverse waves, a reaction of the environment to a change in shape, propagate only in solid bodies. Based on geophysical observations, it has been established that the Earth is heterogeneous and differentiated along the radius.
Currently, several models of the structure of the Earth are known. Most researchers accept a model according to which there are three main shells of the Earth, separated by clearly defined seismic interfaces, where the velocities of seismic waves change sharply (Fig. 8.1):

1. The earth's crust is the hard upper shell of the Earth. Its thickness varies from 5-10 km under the oceans to 30-40 km in flat areas and reaches 50-75 km in mountainous areas (maximum values ​​are found under the Andes and the Himalayas);
2. The Earth's mantle extends below the earth's crust to a depth of 2900 km from the surface and is divided into two parts: the upper mantle - to a depth of 900-1000 km and the lower mantle - from 900-1000 to 2900 km;

3) the Earth's core, where the outer core is distinguished - to a depth of about 5120 km and the inner core - below 5120 km. Earth's crust is separated from the mantle in most cases by a fairly sharp seismic boundary - the Mohorovicic surface (abbreviated as Μ οho, or M). The seismic method revealed a layer of relatively less dense, seemingly “softened” rocks in the upper mantle - the asthenosphere. In this layer, a decrease in the speed of seismic waves, especially transverse ones, and an increase in electrical conductivity are observed, which indicates a less viscous, more plastic state of the substance - on 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than in the overlying and underlying layers of the mantle. It is assumed that these properties are associated with partial melting of the mantle material (1-10%) as a result of a faster increase in temperature than pressure with increasing depth. The viscosity of the asthenosphere changes significantly both in the vertical and horizontal directions, and its thickness also changes. The asthenosphere is located at different depths: under continents - from 80-120 to 200-250 km, under oceans - from 50-70 to 300-400 km. It is most clearly expressed and elevated, in places to depths of 20-25 km or less, under the most mobile zones of the earth's crust and, on the contrary, it is weakly expressed and lowered under the quietest areas of the continents (platform shields). The asthenosphere plays a large role in deep geological processes. The solid suprathenospheric layer of the mantle together with the earth's crust is called the lithosphere.

Basic characteristics of the Earth

The average density of the Earth, according to gravimetric data, is 5.5 g/cm. The density of the rocks that make up the earth's crust ranges from 2.4 to 3.0 g/cm. Comparison of these values ​​with the average density of the Earth leads to the assumption that with depth there should be an increase in density in the mantle and core of the Earth. It is believed that in the above-asthenosphere part of the mantle below the Moho boundary the rocks are much denser. During the transition from the mantle to the core, the density jumps to 9.7-10.0 g/cm3, then it increases and in the inner core it is 12.5-13.0 g/cm3.
Gravity acceleration is calculated to vary from 9.82 m/s2 at the surface to a maximum value of 10.37 m/s2 at the base of the lower mantle (2900 km). In the core, the gravity acceleration quickly drops, reaching 4.52 m/s2 at a depth of about 5000 km, then dropping to 1.26 m/s2 at a depth of 6000 km, and to zero in the center.
It is known that the Earth is like a giant magnet with a force field around it. In the modern era, the Earth's magnetic poles are located near the geographic poles, but do not coincide with them. Currently, the origin of the Earth's main magnetic field is most often explained using the Frenkel-Elsasser dynamotheoretical concept, according to which this field arises as a result of the action of a system of electric currents caused by complex convective movements in the liquid outer core as the Earth rotates. The general background of the magnetic field is influenced by rocks that contain ferromagnetic minerals located in the upper part of the earth's crust, as a result of which magnetic anomalies are formed on the surface of the Earth. The remanent magnetization of rocks containing ferromagnetic minerals is oriented like the Earth's magnetic field that existed during the period of their formation. Studies of this magnetization have shown that the Earth's magnetic field has repeatedly experienced inversions during geological history: the north pole became south, and the south pole became north. The magnetic inversion scale is used to compare rock strata and determine their age.
To understand the processes occurring in the depths of the Earth, the issue of the planet’s thermal field turned out to be important. Currently, there are two sources of the Earth's heat - the Sun and the interior of the Earth. Warming by the Sun extends to a depth not exceeding 28-30 m. At a certain depth from the surface there is a zone of constant temperature equal to the average annual temperature of the area. Thus, in Moscow at a depth of 20 m there is a constant temperature of +4.2 °C, and in Paris +11.83 °C at a depth of 28 m. Below the constant temperature zone, observations in mines, mines, and boreholes have established an increase in temperature with depth, which is due to the heat flow coming from the bowels of the Earth.
The average value of internal heat flow for the Earth is about 1.4-1.5 µcal/cm2 per second. It has been established that heat flow depends on the degree of crustal mobility and the intensity of endogenous (internal) processes. Within the calm regions of the continents, its value is slightly less than average. Significant fluctuations in heat flow are characteristic of mountains; on most of the ocean floor, heat flow is almost the same as on continental plains, but within the so-called rift valleys of mid-ocean ridges it sometimes increases 5-7 times. High heat flow values ​​were observed in the inland areas of the Red Sea.
The sources of the Earth's internal thermal energy have not yet been sufficiently studied. But the main ones are: 1) decay of radioactive elements (uranium, thorium, potassium, etc.); 2) gravitational differentiation with redistribution of material by density in the mantle and core, accompanied by the release of heat. Observations in mines, shafts and boreholes indicate an increase in temperature with depth. To characterize it, a geothermal gradient was introduced - an increase in temperature in degrees Celsius per unit depth. Its meanings vary in different places around the globe. The average is approximately 30 °C per 1 km, and the extreme values ​​of the range differ by more than 25 times, which is explained by different endogenous activity of the earth's crust and different thermal conductivity of rocks. The largest geothermal gradient, equal to 150 °C per 1 km, was noted in Oregon (USA), and the smallest (6 °C per 1 km) was observed in South Africa. In the Kola well, at a depth of 11 km, a temperature of about 200 °C was recorded. The largest gradient values ​​are associated with mobile zones of the oceans and continents, and the smallest with the most stable and ancient sections of the continental crust. The change in temperature with depth is determined very approximately from indirect data. For the earth's crust, temperature calculations are based mainly on data on heat flow, thermal conductivity of rocks, and lava temperature, but for greater depths such data are not available, and the composition of the mantle and core is not precisely known. It is assumed that below the asthenosphere the temperature naturally increases with a significant decrease in the geothermal gradient.
Based on the idea that the core consists mainly of iron, calculations were made of its melting at various boundaries, taking into account the pressure existing there. It was found that at the boundary of the lower mantle and the core the melting temperature of iron should be 3700 °C, and at the boundary of the outer and inner core - 4300 °C. From this it is concluded that, from a physical point of view, the temperature in the core is 4000-5000 °C. For comparison, we can point out that on the surface of the Sun the temperature is slightly less than 6000 °C.
Let us touch upon the question of the aggregate state of the Earth's matter. It is believed that the substance of the lithosphere is in a solid crystalline state, since the temperature at existing pressures here does not reach the melting point. However, in some places and inside the earth’s crust, seismologists note the presence of individual low-speed lenses reminiscent of an asthenospheric layer. According to seismic data, the substance of the Earth's mantle, through which both longitudinal and transverse seismic waves pass, is in an effectively solid state. In this case, the substance of the lower mantle is probably in a crystalline state, since the pressure existing in them prevents melting. Only in the asthenosphere, where seismic wave velocities are reduced, does the temperature approach the melting point. It is assumed that the substance in the asthenospheric layer may be in an amorphous glassy state, and some (less than 10%) may even be in a molten state. Geophysical data, as well as magma pockets arising at various levels of the asthenospheric layer, indicate heterogeneity and stratification of the asthenosphere. As for the state of matter in the Earth's core, most researchers believe that the matter of the outer core is in a liquid state, and the inner core is in a solid state, since the transition from the mantle to the core is accompanied by a sharp decrease in the speed of longitudinal seismic waves, and transverse waves propagating only in solid environment are not included.

§ 8.2. Material composition and structure of the earth's crust

Chemical and mineral composition of the Earth

Analysis of the chemical and mineral composition of the Earth has significant theoretical and practical interest: it can reveal many secrets of the formation and evolution of our planet and provide the key to a more effective search for mineral resources. The average composition of the Earth is judged by the substance from which meteorites are composed, since it is believed that it was from this material that the planets of the solar system, including the Earth, once originated. There are stone (97.7% of all finds), stony-iron (1.3%) and iron (5.6%) meteorites. Their chemical analysis suggests that the Earth's composition is dominated by iron (30-36%), oxygen (29-31%), silicon (14-15%) and magnesium (13-16%). In addition, the amount of sulfur, nickel, aluminum and calcium is measured in units of percent each. All other elements are present in quantities less than 1%.
The most reliable information is available about the chemical composition of the uppermost part of the continental crust, accessible for direct observation and analysis. The first data were published in 1889 by the American scientist F. Clark, who obtained them as arithmetic averages of 6,000 results of chemical analysis of various rocks at his disposal. These data were subsequently refined. The following eight chemical elements are most common in the earth's crust, accounting for a total of over 98% by weight: oxygen (46.5%), silicon (25.7%), iron (6.2%), calcium (5.8% ), magnesium (3.2%), sodium (1.8%), potassium (1.3%). Five more elements are contained in the earth's crust in tenths of a percent: titanium (0.52%), carbon (0.46%), hydrogen (0.16%), manganese (0.12%), sulfur (0.11 %). All other elements account for about 0.37%.
In 1924, Norwegian researcher V.M. Goldschmit proposed the widely used and currently geochemical classification of chemical elements, dividing them into four groups:
◊ the siderophile group of chemical elements includes elements of the iron family, platinum metals, as well as molybdenum and rhenium (11 elements in total), which are similar in geochemical properties to iron;
◊ lithophile elements make up a group of 53 elements that make up the bulk of the minerals of the earth’s crust (lithosphere): silicon, titanium, zirconium, fluorine, chlorine, aluminum, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, etc.;
◊ chalcophile group of chemical elements is represented by sulfur, antimony, bismuth, arsenic, selenium, tellurium and a number of heavy non-ferrous metals (copper, etc.) - a total of 19 elements prone to the formation of natural sulfides, selenides, tellurides, sulfosalts and sometimes found in the native state (gold, silver, mercury, bismuth, arsenic, etc.);
◊ the atmophilic group includes chemical elements (nitrogen, hydrogen, noble gases) typical of the earth’s atmosphere, in which they are present in the form of free atoms or molecules.
The earth's crust is made up of different groups of rocks, differing in their formation conditions and composition. Rocks are mineral aggregates, i.e. a certain combination of minerals. Minerals are natural chemical compounds or native chemical elements that arise as a result of certain physical and chemical processes occurring in the earth’s crust and on its surface. Most minerals are crystalline solids, and only a few are amorphous. The shapes of natural crystals are varied and depend on the regular arrangement in space of microparticles - atoms, ions, molecules that form the structure of the crystals, or their crystalline (spatial) lattice. For the formation of this structure, physicochemical and thermodynamic conditions are of great importance. Thus, graphite - the softest (hardness 1) mineral - forms tabular crystals, and diamond - the hardest mineral (hardness 10) - has the most perfect cubic symmetry group. This difference in properties is due to the difference in the arrangement of atoms in the crystal lattice.
Currently, more than 2,500 natural minerals are known, not counting varieties, but only a few (about 50) - rock-forming minerals - are involved in the formation of rocks that make up the earth's crust. The remaining minerals in rocks occur in the form of minor impurities and are called accessory minerals. The classification of minerals is based on their chemical composition and crystal structure. The main rock-forming and ore minerals are grouped into several mineral classes:
◊ native elements: native gold, silver, copper, platinum, graphite, diamond, sulfur;
◊ sulfides: pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, cinnabar;
◊ halide compounds: halite (table salt), sylvite, carnallite and fluorite;
◊ oxides and hydroxides: quartz, opal, magnetite (magnetic iron ore), hematite, corundum, limonite, goethite;
◊ carbonates: calcite (lime spar), the transparent variety of which is called Iceland spar, dolomite;
◊ phosphates: apatite, phosphorite;
◊ sulfates: gypsum, anhydrite, mirabilite (Glauber’s salt), barite;
About tungstates: wolframite;
◊ silicates: quartz, olivine, beryl, pyroxenes, hornblende, micas, serpentine, talc, glauconite, feldspars.
A special class of minerals are silicates. This class includes the most common rock-forming minerals in the earth’s crust (more than 90% by weight), extremely complex in chemical composition and participating in the structure of all types of rocks, primarily igneous and metamorphic. They make up about a third of all known minerals. Quartz is sometimes included in silicates. The basis of the crystal lattice of silicates is the ionic tetravalent group SiO4.
Even ancient miners noticed that in ore deposits individual minerals are always found together. The joint occurrence of minerals is designated by the term “paragenesis” or “paragenesis” (Greek “pair” - near, nearby). Each process of mineral formation is characterized by its own regular combinations of minerals. Examples of paragenesis include quartz and gold, chalcopyrite and silver ores. Knowledge of the paragenesis of minerals facilitates the task of searching for minerals by their satellites. Thus, the diamond’s companion pyrope (a type of garnet) once helped to discover primary diamond deposits in Yakutia.
A certain combination of minerals, as mentioned above, forms rocks are natural aggregates of minerals of more or less constant mineralogical and chemical composition, forming independent geological bodies that make up the earth's crust. The shape, size and relative position of mineral grains determine the structure and texture of rocks. The rocks that make up the earth's crust are mostly an aggregate of many minerals; less often they consist of grains of one mineral. The mineral composition, structure and occurrence of a rock reflect the conditions of its formation.
Based on their origin, rocks are divided into three groups:

1. igneous rocks formed by intrusion (intrusive rocks) into the earth's crust or eruption of magma onto the surface (effusive rocks). Magma that flows to the surface is called lava. Many deposits of metallic minerals, as well as apatites, diamonds, etc., are associated with magmatic ones;
2. sedimentary rocks formed during the deposition of destroyed igneous rocks and some other ways in the ocean, seas, lakes and rivers. Their composition includes clastic, clayey, chemical and organogenic. The following sedimentary rocks are important as mineral resources: oil, gas, coal, peat, bauxite, phosphorite, etc.;
3. metamorphic breeds, i.e. transformed from both igneous and sedimentary. Under metamorphic conditions, iron, copper, polymetallic, uranium and other ores are formed, as well as graphite, precious stones, refractories, etc. Sometimes from the metamorphic group, metasomatic rocks are distinguished as an independent class, formed as a result of metasomatism - the process of replacing some minerals with others with significant changes in the chemical composition of the rock, but maintaining its volume and solid state when exposed to solutions of high chemical activity. In this case, migration of chemical elements occurs.

Types of the earth's crust

The entire earth's crust consists of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks that occur above the Moho boundary. The ratio of different types of rocks in the crust varies depending on the Earth's topography and geological structure. Within the continent there are plains and mountainous areas, in the oceans there are underwater continental margins (shelf to a depth of about 200 m, continental slope with a foot to depths of 2.5-3.0 km), bed (with prevailing depths of 4-6 km), deep-sea trenches (up to 10-11 km or more) and mid-ocean ridges.
There are usually four main types of the earth's crust: continental, oceanic, subcontinental and suboceanic.
Continental type The earth's crust has different thicknesses: within the continental plains - platforms - 35-40 km, in young mountain structures - 55-70 km. The maximum thickness (about 70-75 km) is established under the Himalayas and the Andes. The structure of the continental crust involves two main parts: sedimentary, consisting of sedimentary rocks; consolidated, composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks, which is usually divided into granite (granite gneiss) and basalt (granulite-basalt) layers. All layers of the earth's crust are characterized by variable thickness. Thus, the thickness of the sedimentary layer varies from zero (on the Baltic, Aldan, etc. shields) to 5 km within the continental plains and only in large troughs of the consolidated crust increases to 8-10 km or more. In orogenic areas in foothill and intermountain troughs, this layer reaches 15-20 km. The thickness of the granite layer varies from 10 to 25 km depending on the total thickness of the earth's crust; on the plains it is approximately 15-20 km, in mountainous areas - 20-25 km. The basalt layer also has variable thickness - from 10-15 to 20 km within platforms and up to 25-35 km in some mountain structures.
Ocean type The earth's crust, characteristic of the floor of the World Ocean, differs sharply from the continental one both in thickness and in composition. There is no granite layer in it, and the thickness ranges from 5 to 12 km, averaging 6-7 km. It consists of three layers: 1) the first (upper) layer of loose marine sediments has a thickness from a few hundred meters to 1 km, rarely more; 2) the second layer has a thickness from 1 to 1.5-3 km. According to drilling data, the layer is represented by basaltic lavas with subordinate layers of siliceous and carbonate rocks; 3) the third layer with a thickness of 3.5-5 km has not yet been drilled.
Suboceanic type the earth's crust is typical for deep-sea basins of marginal and internal seas (southern basin of the Caspian, Black, Mediterranean, Okhotsk and other seas). A special feature of the structure of this type of earth’s crust is the large thickness of sedimentary rocks (up to 4-10 km, in some places up to 20 km). A similar structure of the crust is also typical for some deep depressions on land, for example, for the central part of the Caspian lowland (depression).
The subcontinental type of the earth's crust is characteristic of island arcs (Aleutian, Kuril, etc.) and continental margins. In structure it is close to the continental type, but has less thickness (20-30 km). A feature of the subcontinental crust of island arcs is the unclear separation of layers of the consolidated crust.
The latest geophysical data and materials from the unique ultra-deep Kola well, over 12 km deep, allow us to talk about a much more complex structure of the earth’s crust and to approach the interpretation of the structure of the earth’s crust differently, stimulating the creation of new models. For example, in the model of N.I. Pavlenkova, the consolidated part of the continental crust (below the sedimentary layer), in contrast to the described two-layer model, is divided into three layers. Moreover, the presented two-layer model of the consolidated part of the continental crust with granite and basalt layers is disputed by many seismologists. Geophysical studies indicate complete uncertainty in the position of the boundary between these layers. This was confirmed by the results of drilling the Kola superdeep well. According to preliminary seismic data, this well was supposed to penetrate a basalt layer at a depth of about 7 km, but this did not happen; it turned out that the seismic boundary runs inside a uniform strata of metamorphic rocks.
This once again emphasizes that the structure of the earth’s crust and the Earth as a whole is distinguished by great complexity and diversity due to the different history of its formation and the different nature of the processes occurring in it. Much remains unclear, especially in the interpretation of the material composition of the lower layers of the continental crust.

§ 8.3. Hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth

Water shell of the Earth

Hydrosphere— the water shell of the Earth, which includes all non-chemically bound water. Water is present on Earth in three phase states: solid, liquid and gas. Of the almost 1.5 billion km3 of the total volume of water in the hydrosphere, about 94% comes from the World Ocean, 4% from groundwater (most of which are deep brines), 1.6% from glaciers and permanent snow, about 0.25% - on land surface waters (rivers, lakes, swamps), most of which are located in lakes. Water is present in the atmosphere and living organisms.
The unity of the hydrosphere is due the water cycle - the process of its continuous movement under the influence of solar energy and gravity, covering the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and living organisms (Fig. 8.2). The water cycle consists of evaporation from the surface of the ocean, the transfer of moisture in the atmosphere, precipitation on the ocean and land, its infiltration, and surface and underground runoff from land to the ocean. In the process of the global water cycle, its gradual renewal occurs in all parts of the hydrosphere. Moreover, groundwater is renewed over hundreds, thousands and millions of years; polar glaciers - for 8-15 thousand years; waters of the World Ocean - for 2.5-3 thousand years; closed, drainless lakes - for 200-300 years; flow-through - for several years; rivers - 11-20 days; atmospheric water vapor - for 8 days; water in organisms - in a few hours. It is known that the slower the water exchange, the higher the mineralization (salinity) of water in the hydrosphere element. That is why the waters of the underground hydrosphere are the most highly mineralized, and river waters serve as the beginning of almost all sources of fresh water.
An important element of the hydrosphere is World Ocean, the average depth of which is 3700 m, the greatest - 022 m (Mariana Trench). Almost all substances known on Earth are dissolved in sea water in varying quantities. The main part of the salts dissolved in sea water are chlorides (88.7%) and sulfates (10.8%), carbonates (0.3%).

Each kilogram of water contains on average about 35 g of salts. The salinity of ocean water depends on the ratio of precipitation and evaporation. Its salinity is reduced by river waters and melting ice waters. In the open ocean, the distribution of salinity in the surface layers of water (up to 1500 m) has a zonal character: in the equatorial belt, where there is a lot of precipitation, it is low, in tropical latitudes it is high, and in temperate and polar latitudes, salinity decreases again. The world's oceans absorb and release huge amounts of gases (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, etc.).
The water surface temperature of the World Ocean is also characterized by zonality, which is disrupted by currents, the influence of land, and constant winds. The highest average annual temperatures (27-28 °C) are observed in equatorial latitudes. With increasing latitude, the temperature of the waters of the World Ocean drops to 0 °C and even lower in the polar regions (the freezing point of water with average salinity is 1.8 °C below zero). The average temperature of the surface layer of water is +17.5 °C, and the average water temperature of the entire World Ocean is +4 °C. The thickness of perennial ice reaches a thickness of 3-5 m. Continental ice in the ocean forms floating mountains - icebergs. Ice covers about 15% of the entire water area of ​​the World Ocean.
The water of the World Ocean is not at rest, but undergoes oscillatory (waves) and translational movements (currents). Waves on the surface of the ocean are formed mainly by wind; their height is usually no more than 4-6 m, maximum up to 30 m; wave length from 100-250 m to 500 m. The excitement caused by the wind fades with depth: at a depth of 200 m, even strong excitement is unnoticeable. When approaching the shore, friction with the bottom reduces the speed of the wave base, and the wave crest overturns - a surf appears. On steep shores, where the wave energy is not absorbed by the bottom, the force of their impact reaches 30-38 tons per 1 m2. Unrest throughout the entire thickness of ocean waters causes earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tidal forces. Thus, underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions cause tsunamis that travel at speeds of more than 700 km/h. In the open ocean, the length of a tsunami is estimated at 200-300 km with a height of about 1 m, which is usually imperceptible to ships. Off the coast, the height of the tsunami wave increases to 30 m, which causes catastrophic destruction.
Under the influence of the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun, ebbs and flows occur. Tides caused by the Moon are especially noticeable. Due to the rotation of the Earth, tidal waves move towards its movement - from east to west. Where the crest of a tidal wave passes, a high tide occurs, followed by an ebb. Depending on the conditions, the tides can be semidiurnal (two high tides and two low tides per lunar day), diurnal (one high tide and one low tide per day) and mixed (diurnal and semidiurnal tides replace each other). Solar tides are 2.17 times less than lunar tides. Lunar and solar tides can be added and subtracted. The magnitude and nature of sea tides depend on the relative positions of the Earth, Moon and Sun, on geographic latitude, sea depth, and the shape of the coastline. In the open ocean, the tide height is no more than 1 m, in narrow bays - up to 18 m. The tidal wave penetrates some rivers (Amazon, Thames) and, quickly moving upstream, forms a water shaft up to 5 m high.
Ocean currents are caused by wind, changes in water level and density. The main cause of surface currents is wind. In colder waters there are warm currents, in less cold waters there are cold currents. Warm currents are directed from lower latitudes towards higher latitudes, cold currents - vice versa. The direction of the current is influenced by the rotation of the Earth, which explains their deviation to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Systems of surface currents in the oceans depend on the direction of the prevailing winds and on the position and configuration of the oceans. In tropical latitudes, stable air currents over the oceans (trade winds) cause northern and southern trade wind currents, pushing water to the eastern shores of the continents. An inter-trade wind countercurrent occurs between them. Along the eastern coasts, warm currents flow north and south into temperate latitudes. In temperate latitudes, westerly winds cause currents to cross the oceans from west to east. The causes of currents at depth are different densities of water, which can be caused by the pressure of the mass of water from above (for example, in places of surge or driven by the wind), changes in temperature and salinity. Changes in the density of water are the reason for its vertical movements: the lowering of cold (or more salty) and the rise of warm (or less salty) water.
The movement of water is associated with the supply of depths with oxygen and other gases from the atmosphere and the removal of nutrients for organisms from the depths to the surface layers. Places of intense water mixing are richest in life. The World Ocean is home to about 160 thousand species of animals and more than 10 thousand species of algae. There are three groups of marine organisms: 1) plankton - passively moving unicellular algae and animals, crustaceans, jellyfish, etc.; 2) nekton - actively moving animals (fish, cetaceans, turtles, cephalopods, etc.); 3) benthos - organisms living on the bottom (brown and red algae, mollusks, crustaceans, etc.). The distribution of life in the surface layer of water is zonal.
Land waters, which include groundwater, rivers, lakes, swamps, and glaciers, play a significant role in the existence of life on Earth.
The groundwater are located in the rock mass of the upper part of the earth's crust. The bulk of them is formed due to the seepage of rain, melt and river water from the surface. The depth, direction and intensity of movement of groundwater depend on the permeability of rocks. According to the conditions of occurrence, groundwater is divided into soil; soil, lying on the first permanent waterproof layer from the surface; interstratal, located between two impermeable layers. Groundwater feeds rivers and lakes.
Rivers - constant water flows on the land surface. The main river and its tributaries form a river system. The area from which a river collects surface and groundwater is called a river basin. The basins of neighboring rivers are separated by watersheds. The speed of the river flow is directly dependent on the slope of the channel - the ratio of the difference in the height of the section to its length. In lowland rivers the flow speed rarely exceeds 1 m/s, and in mountain rivers it is usually more than 5 m/s. The most important characteristic of rivers is their nutrition - snow, rain, glaciers and underground. Most rivers have mixed feeding. Rain feeding is typical for rivers in equatorial, tropical and monsoon regions. Rivers of temperate climates with cold, snowy winters are fed by the waters of melting snow. Rivers that begin in high, glacier-covered mountains are fed by glaciers. Groundwater feeds many rivers, thanks to which they do not dry out in the summer and do not dry up under the ice. The regime of rivers largely depends on nutrition - changes in water flow according to the seasons of the year, fluctuations in its level and changes in temperature. The world's most abundant river is the Amazon (220,000 m3/s per year). In our country, the most abundant river is the Yenisei (19,800 m3/s per year).
Lakes - reservoirs of slow water exchange. They occupy about 1.8% of the land surface. The largest of them is the Caspian Sea, the deepest is Baikal. Lakes can be drainage (rivers flow from them) or drainless (devoid of flow); the latter are often salty. In lakes with very high mineralization, salts can precipitate (self-sedimented lakes Elton and Baskunchak). Zoning is observed in the distribution of lakes across the earth's surface. There are especially many lakes in the tundra and forest zones. In areas with insufficient moisture, mainly temporary reservoirs appear.
Swamps - excessively moist land areas with moisture-loving vegetation and a peat layer of at least 0.3 m (with a smaller layer - wetlands). Swamps are formed as a result of overgrowth of lakes or swamping of land and are divided into lowland, fed mainly by groundwater and having a concave or flat surface, transitional and upland, the main nutrition of which is precipitation, their surface is convex. The total area occupied by swamps is about 2% of the land area.
Glaciers - moving masses of ice that arise on land as a result of the accumulation and gradual transformation of solid atmospheric precipitation. They form where more solid precipitation falls during the year than has time to melt and evaporate. The limit above which snow accumulation is possible is called the snow line. In the polar regions it is located low (in Antarctica - at sea level), at the equator - at an altitude of about 5 km, and in tropical latitudes - above 6 km. Glaciation is of two types: cover (Antarctica, Greenland) and mountain (Alaska, Himalayas, Hindu Kush, Pamir, Tien Shan). A glacier has areas of feeding (where ice accumulates) and drainage (where its mass decreases due to melting, evaporation, and mechanical calving). Once accumulated, the ice begins to move under the influence of gravity. The glacier can advance and retreat. Now glaciers occupy about 11% of the total land area; during the era of maximum glaciation they covered about 30% of its area. Glaciers contain almost 70% of the fresh water on Earth.

Air envelope of the Earth

Atmosphere— This is the air envelope of the Earth, which consists of a mixture of gases (air), water vapor and impurities (aerosols). The air near the earth's surface contains (by volume) more than 78% nitrogen N2, about 21% oxygen 02 and less than 1% other gases, including 0.93% argon Ar and 0.03% carbon dioxide CÜ2. Its composition is almost everywhere the same and, thanks to mixing, it remains up to an altitude of 90-100 km, and above that, lighter gases predominate. As a result of photochemical reactions, at an altitude of 20-30 km, a layer of high ozone content is formed - an O3-ozone screen, which blocks ultraviolet radiation harmful to living organisms. The amount of water vapor decreases rapidly with distance from the surface. At an altitude of 2 km it is 2 times less than at the surface, and above 70-80 km it is practically absent. The atmosphere contains solid and liquid impurities (dust, soot, ash, ice and sea salt crystals, water droplets, microorganisms, pollen, etc.).
In accordance with the change in temperature with height, the following are distinguished: the troposphere (up to 15-17 km in the tropics and up to 8-9 km above the poles), the stratosphere (up to 50-55 km), the mesosphere (up to 80-82 km), and the thermosphere, gradually turning into interplanetary space. In the troposphere and mesosphere, temperature decreases with height, and in the stratosphere and thermosphere, on the contrary, it increases (Fig. 8.3). Based on the degree of ionization in the atmosphere, the neutrosphere (up to an altitude of 80-100 km) and a highly ionized layer - the ionosphere (above 80-100 km) are distinguished.


The troposphere contains 4/5 of the total mass of atmospheric air. Clouds form here and precipitation falls. The atmosphere receives the greatest amount of heat from solar radiation reflected by the earth's surface. Therefore, in the troposphere, air temperature usually decreases with height. But if the earth's surface gives off more heat to the air than it receives in the same time, it cools, and the air above it cools, and in this case the air temperature rises with height. This can be observed in the summer at night, in the winter - above the snow surface.
The average air temperature in the lower two-meter layer for the entire Earth is +14 °C. Air temperature changes throughout the day and throughout the year. In its daily course, one maximum (after noon) and one minimum (after sunrise) are observed. From the equator to the poles, the daily amplitudes of temperature fluctuations decrease; over land they are always greater than over the ocean. The amplitudes of annual air temperature fluctuations increase with increasing latitude; at the equator they are less than daily (1-2 °C over the ocean and up to 5 °C over land), in temperate latitudes from 10-15 °C over the ocean to 60 °C or more over land; in polar latitudes, annual temperature fluctuations reach 30-40 °C.
On the ground allocate thermal zones, the boundaries of which depend on the height of the Sun, the length of the day, the nature of the earth's surface, and the transfer of heat by air and ocean currents. The boundaries of the hot zone of equatorial latitudes, where the average annual temperature does not fall below +20 °C, coincide with the boundaries of the distribution of palm trees on land and corals in the ocean. The hot zone is adjacent to the north and south by temperate zones, where the average temperature of the warmest months - July in the Northern Hemisphere and January in the Southern Hemisphere - is +10 °C. This is the boundary of forest distribution. In the two cold zones, the average temperature of the warmest month ranges between +10 °C and O °C. This is the border of the tundra. Behind it are the frost belts located at the poles, where the average temperature of the warmest month is below 0 °C.
The atmospheric pressure on the underlying surface averages 1.033 kg per 1 cm2 (more than 10 tons per 1 m2). Pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury, millibars and hectopascals (0.75 mmHg = 1 mb = 1 hPa). Maximum atmospheric pressure 816 mm Hg. Art. registered in winter in Turukhansk, and the minimum is 641 mm Hg. Art. — in Hurricane Nancy over the Pacific Ocean. The pressure decreases with altitude: at an altitude of 5 km it is 2 times lower than normal, at an altitude of 20 km it is 18 times lower. The change in pressure is explained by the movement of air due to its heating and cooling. Heated from the surface, the air expands and rushes upward. Having reached a height at which its density is greater than the density of the surrounding air, it spreads out to the sides. Therefore, the pressure on the warm surface decreases, and on neighboring areas it increases.
In equatorial latitudes, the pressure is always low, since the air heated from the surface rises and moves towards tropical latitudes, creating an area of ​​​​high pressure there. There is increased pressure over the cold surface in the Arctic and Antarctica. It is created by air coming from temperate latitudes to replace the condensed cold air. The outflow of air to the polar latitudes is the reason for the decrease in pressure in temperate latitudes. As a result, belts of low (equatorial and temperate) and high (tropical and polar) pressure are formed.
Air moves horizontally (wind). The average long-term wind speed at the earth's surface is 4-9 m/s. The maximum is observed off the coast of Antarctica -22 m/s with gusts up to 100 m/s. Wind speed increases with height, reaching hundreds of meters per second. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows, and depends on the distribution of pressure and the deflecting effect of the Earth's rotation. Air tends to move from higher pressure to lower pressure along the shortest path, deviating to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and to the right in the Northern Hemisphere (Fig. 8.4). The pattern of prevailing wind belts is complicated by the influence of continents and oceans, the formation of seasonal minimums and maximums of pressure over land. At the border of continents and oceans, winds blow from the continent to the ocean in winter, and from ocean to continent in summer (monsoon winds). Depending on the nature of the relief, vegetation, and reservoirs, local winds arise (breezes, foehn, bora, etc.).

Vortexes are constantly formed in the troposphere due to varying atmospheric pressure and the deflecting effect of the Earth's rotation. In a closed area of ​​low pressure, air rushes towards the center, deviating to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. In the center it rises and spreads to the sides, also deviating. An ascending vortex - a cyclone - is formed, and an area of ​​low pressure with a cyclic system of winds (from the periphery to the center) is formed at the surface. In a closed area of ​​high pressure, a downward vortex is formed - an anticyclone, and at the surface - an area of ​​​​high pressure with an anticyclic system of winds (from the center to the periphery). Cyclones and anticyclones occur especially often in temperate latitudes. Their diameter reaches 3—4 thousand km at an altitude of up to 18-20 km. Cyclones that occur in tropical latitudes (typhoons, hurricanes) are characterized by higher wind speeds. Relatively small whirlwinds (tornadoes and tornadoes) have destructive power.
Water in the atmosphere is contained in the form of steam, droplets and crystals. The percentage of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the amount that can be contained at a given temperature is called relative humidity. The higher the air temperature, the more water vapor it can contain. Water vapor enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the surface. When the temperature drops in the atmosphere, condensation may begin, which manifests itself in the form of dew, frost, fog, and clouds. There are cirrus clouds (clouds of the upper tier - above 6000 m; they are translucent, icy; precipitation does not fall from them); layered (middle tier - from 2000 to 6000 m and lower - less than 2000 m), which mainly produce precipitation, usually long-term, continuous; cumulus (can form in the lower tier and reach very high altitudes; showers, hail, and thunderstorms are associated with them). The greatest cloudiness is observed in areas of low pressure; the smallest is in areas of high pressure. It is greater over the ocean than over land, since there is more moisture in the air here. The absolute maximum of cloudiness is over the North Atlantic, the absolute minimum is over Antarctica and tropical deserts. Clouds delay solar radiation reaching the earth's surface, reflect and scatter it, and also delay thermal radiation from the earth's surface.
Precipitation can be liquid (rain) and solid (snow, pellets, hail). Precipitation is measured by the layer of water (in millimeters) that forms when the fallen water does not drain and evaporate. On average, 1130 mm of precipitation falls on Earth per year, almost half of which occurs at equatorial latitudes. In the direction from equatorial latitudes to tropical latitudes, the amount of precipitation decreases. In temperate latitudes their number increases again, while in polar latitudes it decreases. There is more precipitation over the ocean than over land, and less precipitation over cold currents than over warm ones. The distribution of precipitation on land is influenced by the distance from the ocean and the topography of the earth's surface. The most precipitation is on the windward slopes of the mountains; their amount decreases with height, and above the snow line, solid precipitation does not have time to melt and accumulates in the form of snowfields and glaciers. Due to its low thermal conductivity, snow protects the soil from freezing and plants from death; It accumulates water reserves that are consumed in the summer. Meltwater replenishes groundwater, lakes and rivers. The absolute maximum precipitation was recorded in Cherrapunji (India) - 26,461 mm/year, the absolute minimum - in the Atacama and Libyan deserts, where precipitation does not fall every year. But the amount of precipitation that falls cannot be used to judge the provision of a territory with moisture—humidification. It is necessary to take into account possible evaporation (evaporation), which depends on the amount of solar radiation: the more radiation, the more moisture can evaporate. Based on the degree of moisture, wet (humid) and dry (arid) areas are distinguished.
The Earth's atmosphere is an interconnected system of moving air volumes. Large volumes of air in the troposphere, having approximately the same properties, are called air mass. It is characterized by the general direction of movement. An air mass acquires its properties (temperature, humidity, dust content) in contact with the underlying surface over which it lingers. The main (zonal) types of air masses that form in latitudinal zones with different atmospheric pressures are distinguished: equatorial - warm and humid; two tropical - warm and dry over the continents; two air masses of temperate latitudes - less warm and more humid than the tropical, but warmer and more humid than the Arctic and Antarctic; Arctic and Antarctic - cold and dry. In addition to belts of constant presence of air masses, belts arise in which one air mass dominates in winter, and another in summer. For example, temperate air is formed from tropical and arctic (Antarctic) air.
All air masses are interconnected by general circulation in the troposphere. Within the main (zonal) types of air masses, there are continental (continental) and oceanic (sea) subtypes. The main factors of circulation are the radiant energy of the Sun, the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the nature of the earth's surface.
To analyze processes and phenomena of different spatiotemporal scales occurring in the atmosphere, concepts such as weather and climate are essential. Weather is the state of the atmosphere in a given area at a given moment or over a period of time (day, week, month). Weather is characterized by elements (air temperature, humidity, pressure) and phenomena (wind, clouds, precipitation). Sometimes weather phenomena are unusual or catastrophic in nature: hurricanes, thunderstorms, downpours, droughts. The main reasons for weather changes are changes in the amount of solar heat, movement of air masses, atmospheric fronts, cyclones and anticyclones.
Climate— This is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area. It manifests itself in the natural change of all weather observed in this area. Like the weather, climate depends on the amount of solar radiation, on the movement of air masses, atmospheric fronts, cyclones and anticyclones, and on the properties of the underlying surface. Basic climate indicators: air temperature (average annual, January and July), prevailing wind direction, annual amount and regime of precipitation.
In accordance with thermal zones and zones of dominance of zonal types of air masses, climate zones are distinguished. There are seven main climatic zones: equatorial, two tropical, two temperate, two polar (Arctic and Antarctic). Between the main ones there are transitional climatic zones: two subequatorial, two subtropical and two subpolar. They differ in the change of air masses: in winter the air mass of the main belt, neighboring on the side of the pole, dominates, in summer - the neighboring on the side of the equator. Continental and maritime climates are distinguished: they differ in annual amplitudes of temperature fluctuations and amount of precipitation. On the border of continents and oceans, where the winds seasonally change direction almost to the opposite (in winter - from land, in summer - from the ocean), a monsoon climate prevails, characterized by warm, rainy summers and cold, dry winters (in the east of Eurasia, on the border with the Pacific Ocean). On continents, climate is influenced by topography. In the mountains, the higher you go, the colder it is; even at the equator, the tops of the mountains are covered with snow. In the air rising along the slopes, the amount of precipitation first increases and then begins to decrease, i.e. Mountains are characterized by altitudinal climate zones. However, at any altitude, the climate depends on the latitude of the area, since the length of the day (solar radiation) remains the same as in the climate zone at the foot.
The climate changes over time, and there are many reasons for this. Thus, a change in the angle of inclination of the earth’s axis to the orbit causes a change in the position of the boundaries of thermal, and therefore climate, zones. Changes in areas, locations of continents and oceans entail significant climate changes throughout the Earth. The climate is affected by strong volcanic eruptions, releasing huge amounts of gases, dust, ash and water vapor into the atmosphere. In recent decades, the anthropogenic impact on the climate associated with human activities has been increasing: an increase in CO2 content, dust, heat emissions, etc. influence the state of the atmosphere; deforestation, creation of reservoirs, irrigation and drainage of territories, reduction of areas covered with ice, both on land and in the ocean, changing the earth's surface, also cause climate change.

§ 8.4. Geodynamic processes

Endogenous (internal) processes

The appearance of our planet is not something frozen, formed once and for all. Thanks to various geodynamic processes, there is a constant modification of the earth's crust and its surface, creating conditions for the emergence of new rocks and the destruction of existing ones. These processes are divided into two large groups - endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external). Geodynamic processes are closely related in space and time, and their interaction itself is complex and largely contradictory.
Let us consider the main geodynamic processes and some results of their interaction. Endogenous processes are those caused primarily by the internal forces of the Earth and occurring in its depths. They are caused by the energy released during the development of the Earth's substance, the action of gravity and forces arising during the rotation of the Earth, and manifest themselves in the form of tectonic movements (slow rise and fall of the earth's crust, folding, the formation of large relief elements, earthquakes), magmatism processes (melting, movement and solidification of magma), rock metamorphism and the formation of mineral deposits.
Tectonic movements lead to deformations (disturbances) of the upper parts of the earth's crust. There are discontinuous faults, accompanied by the movement of broken parts of geological bodies relative to each other, and fold faults, when the occurrence of layers changes without changing the continuity of rocks, i.e. bends of layers appear - folds; the process of their formation is called folding or folding.
Tectonic movements can be divided into horizontal and vertical. Horizontal movements play a significant role in the formation of the lithosphere and topography of the earth's surface and are the focus of plate tectonics, which has now become perhaps the most universal concept that explains many phenomena on Earth.
This concept is based on the following provisions. The upper part of the Earth is divided into two shells - a rigid and fragile lithosphere and a more plastic and mobile asthenosphere. The lithosphere is divided into a number of plates (Fig. 8.5). The basis for their differentiation is the location of earthquake foci, since seismic energy is mainly released at the boundaries between plates. In most cases, although not always, these boundaries are clearly defined.


Three types of mutual movements of plates are observed: O divergent boundaries, along which plates move apart (spreading);
◊ convergent boundaries along which plates converge, usually expressed in the subduction of one plate under another. In this case, the following are possible: subduction, when the oceanic plate moves under the continental one (an accretionary prism is formed that builds up a continental, marginal or island arc); obduction, when the oceanic plate (crust, lithosphere) moves onto the continental one; collision, when two continental plates collide (usually with one being pushed under the other), which gives rise to complex crustal structure and mountain building;
◊ transform boundaries, along which horizontal sliding of one plate occurs relative to another along the plane of a vertical transform fault.
In nature, boundaries of the first two types predominate. Moreover, divergent boundaries are confined to the axial zones of mid-ocean ridges and intercontinental rifts (large linear tectonic structures of the earth's crust, formed mainly during horizontal stretching of the crust), and convergent boundaries are confined to the axial zones of deep-sea trenches associated with island arcs. At divergent boundaries, there is a continuous birth of new oceanic crust, which is moved by the asthenospheric current towards subduction zones, where it is absorbed at depth. It is believed that the volume of oceanic crust absorbed in subduction zones is equal to the volume of crust formed in spreading zones. Thanks to this, the radius and volume of the Earth remain more or less constant.
The main reason for the horizontal movement of plates is considered to be convection in the mantle, caused by its heating. In this case, mid-ocean ridges with their rifts are located above the ascending branches of currents, and deep-sea trenches are located above the descending ones. The newly formed oceanic lithosphere moves towards the trenches, gradually cooling, becoming denser and increasing its thickness due to the asthenosphere. The result of this is downward vertical movements. Ultimately, the oceanic lithosphere becomes heavier than the underlying asthenosphere and sinks into it along the ocean slopes of deep-sea trenches.
Vertical movements have even more varied causes. The uplifts may be caused by the rise of lighter melts from the asthenosphere (which simultaneously causes divergent horizontal movements), as well as by the heating of the lithosphere above these rising hot mantle jets. Sinking in the oceans is associated with the cooling of the lithosphere as it moves away from the spreading axes and is maximum in the zones of deep-sea trenches. In zones emerging to the surface along the axes of the trenches, subsidence is again replaced by uplift due to crowding, accumulation of sediments and accumulation of products of volcanic activity. The processes of regional metamorphism and granite formation here lead to an increase in the thickness of the light continental crust, and this in turn leads to its floating. The formation of primary mountain structures is associated with this process. Secondary mountain structures are formed under the influence of the collision of continental plates, as a result of which the heat flow increases, which contributes to the rise of the asthenosphere and the growth of uplifts. It is believed that the subsidence of the territory may be associated with the formation of an ice sheet (Antarctica, Greenland) and the rise of areas freed from the ice sheet due to the removal of load (Baltic and Canadian shields).
Earthquakes are underground tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface that occur as a result of sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust or upper mantle and are transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. Earthquakes have been observed since ancient times. Detailed descriptions of earthquakes observed from the middle of the 1st millennium BC were given by the Japanese. Systematic instrumental observations began in the second half of the 19th century. (B.B. Golitsyn, E. Wichert, B. Gutenberg, A. Mohorovicic, F. Omori, etc.).
Strong earthquakes are catastrophic in nature, second only to typhoons in the number of victims and significantly (tens of times) ahead of volcanic eruptions. The number of weak earthquakes is much greater than the number of strong ones. Thus, for hundreds of thousands of earthquakes observed annually on Earth, there are only a few catastrophic ones.
The territorial distribution of earthquakes is uneven and is determined by the movement and interaction of lithospheric plates. There are two main seismic belts: the Pacific, encircling the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and the Mediterranean, stretching across southern Eurasia from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Malay Archipelago in the east. Within the oceans, mid-ocean ridges are characterized by significant seismic activity. The foci of earthquakes are located at depths of up to 700 km, but 3/4 of the seismic energy is released in foci located at a depth of no more than 70 km. The size of the source of catastrophic earthquakes can reach hundreds and thousands of kilometers.
The area of ​​greatest destruction is located around the epicenter - the projection onto the earth's surface of the place where mass movement begins - the hypocenter.
The intensity of earthquakes on the surface is measured in points and depends on the depth of the source and the magnitude of the earthquake, which serves as a measure of its energy. The known maximum value of magnitude is close to 9. As the magnitude increases by one unit, the energy increases 100 times, for example, a shock of magnitude 6 releases 100 times more energy than a magnitude 5. The magnitude scale is called the Richter scale. Along with it, a number of seismic scales are used, which can be reduced to three main groups.
In Russia, the most widely used 12-point scale in the world, MSK-64 (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik), which dates back to the Mercali-Cancani scale (1902), is used in the countries of Latin America. The 10-point Rossi-Forel scale (1883) is adopted in Latin American countries. Japan - 7-point scale. The intensity assessment, which is based on the everyday consequences of an earthquake, is recorded on the MSK-64 scale as follows:

1. point - not felt by anyone, recorded only by seismic instruments;
2. balla - sometimes felt by people who are in a calm state;
3. points - felt by few, more noticeable in rooms on the upper floors;
4. points - felt by many (especially indoors); at night, some wake up. Clinking of dishes, rattling of glass, slamming of doors are possible;
5. points - is felt by almost everyone, many wake up at night. Hanging objects sway, cracks appear in window glass and plaster;
6. points - felt by everyone, plaster crumbling, light destruction of buildings;

7 points - cracks appear in the plaster and individual pieces break off, thin cracks in the walls. Shocks are felt in cars;
8 points - large cracks in the walls, falling pipes, monuments. Cracks on steep slopes and in damp soil;
9 points - collapse of walls, roofs in some buildings, ruptures of underground pipelines;

1. points - collapses of many buildings, bending of railway rails. Landslides, landslides, cracks (up to 1 m) in the ground;
2. points - numerous wide cracks in the ground, landslides in the mountains, collapse of bridges, only a few stone buildings remain stable;
3. points - significant changes in terrain, deviation of river flows, objects being thrown into the air, total destruction of structures.

Strong earthquakes can be felt thousands of kilometers or more away. Thus, in Moscow, from time to time, tremors with an intensity of up to 3 points are observed as an “echo” of the catastrophic Carpathian earthquakes in the Vrancea mountains in Romania; the same earthquakes in Moldova, close to Romania, are felt as 7-8. The duration of earthquakes varies. For example, the earthquake on the island of Lissa in the Mediterranean Sea lasted three years (1870-1873), the total number of tremors was 86 thousand.
Any earthquake with a magnitude greater than 7 can become a major disaster. However, it may go unnoticed if it occurs in a desert area. For example, as a result of the Gobi-Altai earthquake of 1957 with a magnitude of 8.5 and an intensity of 11-12 points, two lakes arose, a huge thrust was instantly formed in the form of a rock wave up to 10 m high, the maximum displacement along the fault reached 300 m, etc. .; an area the size of Denmark or Holland was completely destroyed. If this earthquake had occurred in a densely populated area, the death toll could be in the millions.
If earthquakes occur at sea, they can cause destructive waves - tsunamis, which most often devastate the Pacific coast, as happened in 1933 in Japan and in 1952 in Kamchatka. The total number of earthquake victims on the planet over the past 500 years has been about 5 million people, almost half of them in China. Large losses during earthquakes are usually associated with high population density and primitive construction methods, especially characteristic of poor regions.
At the end of the 20th century. Human activity, which has assumed a planetary scale, has become the cause of artificially induced seismicity, which occurs, for example, during nuclear explosions (tests at the Nevada test site (USA) initiated thousands of seismic tremors), during the construction of reservoirs, the filling of which sometimes provokes strong earthquakes. This happened in India when the construction of the Koyna reservoir caused an 8.0 magnitude earthquake that killed 177 people.
Magmatism is the process of melting magma, its further development, movement, interaction with solid rocks and solidification. Magma is a molten mass formed in the deep zones of the Earth. When magma intrudes into the earth's crust or erupts onto the earth's surface, igneous rocks are formed. Magma periodically forms separate chambers in the Earth's shells of different composition and depth.
Magmatism is a manifestation of the deep activity of the Earth and is closely related to its development, thermal history and tectonic evolution. Based on the depth of manifestation, magmatism is divided into abyssal (deep), hypabyssal (manifested at shallow depths) and surface (volcanism). As a result of magmatism, the following are formed: intrusive bodies and rocks - in the process of penetration of molten magma into the thickness of the earth's crust, and effusive - in the process of outpouring of liquid lava from the depths of the Earth to the surface with the formation of lava covers and flows.
Volcanism is a set of phenomena caused by the penetration of magma from the depths of the Earth to its surface. Volcanism leads to the appearance on the surface of the Earth of a huge amount of volcanic material (volcanic glass, ash, gases, etc.), as well as to the formation of such a grandiose formation as a volcano, which arises over channels and cracks in the earth's crust. It is through these channels and cracks that lava, ash, hot gases, water vapor and rock fragments erupt onto the earth's surface.
According to the degree of activity, active, dormant and extinct volcanoes are distinguished, and according to their shape - central, erupting from a central outlet, and fissures, the volcanic apparatus of which looks like gaping cracks or a series of small cones. The main parts of the volcanic apparatus are the magma chamber (in the earth's crust or upper mantle); vent - an outlet channel through which magma rises to the surface; cone - a rise on the surface of the Earth from the products of a volcanic ejection; crater - a depression on the surface of a volcano cone. Modern volcanoes are located along large faults and tectonically mobile areas (mainly on islands and the shores of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans). Among the active active volcanoes we will name Klyuchevskaya Sopka and Avachinskaya Sopka (Kamchatka, Russia), Vesuvius (Italy), Izalco (El Salvador), Mauna Loa (Hawaiian Islands).

Exogenous (external) processes

Exogenous processes are processes that occur on the Earth's surface or at shallow depths in the earth's crust and are caused by the energy of solar radiation, gravitational force and the vital activity of organisms. The essence of exogenous processes boils down to the following:
◊ weathering - mechanical destruction of rocks and chemical transformation of their constituent minerals;
◊ denudation - removal and transfer of loosened and dissolved products of rock destruction by water, wind and ice. Its pace and character are greatly influenced by the scope and speed of tectonic movements, as well as the climatic conditions of the territory. The predominance of denudation over tectonic uplift eventually leads to a decrease in the absolute and relative heights of the region and a general leveling of the relief;
◊ accumulation - deposition of these products in the form of sediments on land or at the bottom of water basins.
The process of joint formation of relief and loose sediments is in turn called morpholithogenesis. Thus, as a result of the activity of the river, both its valley and sediments (alluvium) are formed.
The basis of all exogenous processes is weathering is the process of mechanical destruction and chemical change of rocks and minerals under the conditions of the earth’s surface and near-surface layers of the lithosphere, occurring under the influence of various atmospheric agents (precipitation, wind, seasonal and daily fluctuations in air temperature, exposure to atmospheric oxygen on rocks, etc.), ground and surface water, the vital activity of plant and animal organisms and the products of their decomposition. Weathering is of great importance in preparing a substance for its transport; Closely related to it is soil formation - the origin and formation of soil.
Slope processes - class of exogenous phenomena. Their wide distribution is due to the fact that most of the earth's surface consists of slopes - inclined areas of the surface formed as a result of endogenous and exogenous processes. The nature of the slopes is determined by the composition and structure of the constituent rocks, the absolute and relative heights of the area, the intensity of slope processes, the characteristics of the climate, vegetation and other components of the natural environment, and the exposure of the slopes. Based on the predominance of gravitational movements of one type or another and the nature of relief-forming processes, landslide slopes, landslide slopes, etc. are distinguished. Their mechanisms are quite diverse. For example, landslides (sliding displacement of masses of rocks down a slope under the influence of gravity) can form as a result of erosion of the slope, waterlogging, seismic tremors, etc.; solifluction processes develop as a result of the slow movement of soils and loose soils under the influence of alternating thawing - freezing and gravity.
The transformation of the earth's surface is greatly facilitated by fluvial(erosive-accumulative) processes - a set of processes carried out by flowing surface water flows. Water flows are divided into permanent (rivers) and temporary, and temporary, in turn, into channel (ravines and gullies) and non-channel (slope) streams. The result of fluvial processes is the erosion of the earth's surface by water flows in some places and the simultaneous transfer and deposition of erosion products in others, as a result of which both worked-out (erosive) and accumulative landforms are formed at the same time.
Fluvial processes develop within river basins, which include river, gully-gully and slope systems. The central element of river basins are rivers - water streams flowing in natural channels and fed by surface and underground runoff from their basins. Rivers are divided into two groups: fast-flowing mountain rivers, usually flowing in narrow valleys, and lowland rivers, which have a slower flow and wide terraced valleys. The largest rivers: in the Russian Federation - Ob, Yenisei, Amur, Lena, Volga; in foreign countries - Nile, Mississippi, Amazon, Yangtze. Rivers are characterized by their regime - changes in levels, flow rate, flow speed, water temperature and other phenomena, depending mainly on the nature of the rivers' feeding and the climatic conditions of the area through which they flow. The total annual flow of rivers into the World Ocean is 42 thousand km3. Rivers are the most important element of the natural environment: a source of drinking and industrial water, a natural waterway, a constantly renewable source of hydropower, a habitat for fish and other freshwater organisms, as well as aquatic vegetation.
Glacial processes are processes associated with ice activity, i.e. with modern or past glaciation of the territory. Such processes can develop under the condition of glaciation of a certain territory - a sufficiently long existence of a large amount of ice within a section of the earth's surface, primarily in the form of glaciers - moving accumulations of ice. The erosive activity of glaciers (exaration) comes down to the plowing out of the bedrock of the glacier with rock fragments frozen into moving ice, accumulative activity - to the formation of specific deposits in the form of an accumulation of unsorted rock fragments transported or deposited by glaciers - moraines. In the geological past, the largest climate fluctuations resulted in alternating glacial (glacial) and interglacial periods. In the time closest to us - in the Pleistocene - there are six ice ages and five interglacials. As a result of the melting of glaciers, powerful water flows are formed, which form fluviotic deposits (deposits of water-glacial flows) and relief. In areas characterized by negative temperatures of rocks and soils, the presence of underground ice and permafrost, specific cryogenic processes have become widespread: heaving and ice formation; cryogenic weathering, frost sorting, cryogenic creep, solifluction, etc.; frost cracking; thermokarst
Karst processes are processes of dissolution, or leaching, and partly erosion of fractured soluble rocks by moving underground and surface waters and the associated formation of specific karst depressions of relief on the surface of the Earth and various voids, channels and caves in the depths. In addition to karst processes, pseudokarst (false karst) processes are distinguished, when the formation of forms occurs that externally resemble karst, but are caused by other processes.
Aeolian processes are processes caused by wind activity: blowing or fluttering of loose material (deflation), grinding and destruction of hard rocks by clastic material carried by the wind (corrosive niches and aeolian “stone mushrooms”, “stone pillars”, etc.), transfer of aeolian material and its accumulation (ridge sands, dunes, dune chains and parabolic dunes, etc.). These processes are common in areas of sparse vegetation cover and strong winds.
Coastal marine processes occur within the coastal zone, at the boundary between land and ocean. As a result of the transformation and dissipation of the energy of sea waves during interaction with the lithosphere, abrasion shores are formed - high retreating shores of reservoirs and accumulative shores - advancing shores composed of sediment brought by waves and surf. As a result of the lateral movement of sediment, a beach is formed - an accumulation of sediment in the zone of the surf flow. It is believed that the process of transverse movement of sediment is also associated with the formation of underwater shafts - accumulative forms, usually composed of sandy material and stretching along the coast parallel to each other.
Within the bottom of the World Ocean, gravitational processes are widespread - processes in the emergence and development of which the main role belongs to gravity. Currently, among the gravitational processes of the bottom of the World Ocean, the process of slow sliding or sliding of sediment layers on relatively gentle slopes (creep) is distinguished; underwater landslides; turbidity currents - the flow of an aqueous suspension of solid particles; bottom and constant surface currents that form huge sedimentary ridges; bottom accumulation leading to a change in bottom topography due to the burial of bedrock irregularities. A major role in the formation of exogenous forms of relief of the bottom of the World Ocean is played by the biogenic factor - the activity of reef builders, the accumulation of loose material as a result of the death of organisms, the destruction and loosening of rocks due to the activity of various stone burrowers, the processing of bottom soils by silt eaters, etc.
The increasing human impact on the earth’s surface makes it necessary to study anthropogenic landforms and sediments - the collection of landforms and sediments modified or created by human activity. There are deliberately created forms of anthropogenic relief and sediments produced during reclamation (terracing and embankment of slopes, construction of irrigation and drainage networks), construction (embankments, excavations, canals, dams), etc., and spontaneously arising as a result of improper management of agriculture and forestry , underground construction, road construction, etc. (ravines, surface subsidence above mine workings, shifting sands, etc.).
In addition to those presented above, you should indicate cosmogenic process associated with the fall of meteorites, which leave traces in the form of craters. In addition to large bodies, cosmic matter in the form of dust and micrometeorites falls on the Earth's surface, the amount of which in the overall balance of loose sediments moving on the relief surface is small.

Interaction of exogenous and endogenous processes

To understand the processes of sediment formation and surface topography, the concepts of interaction between exogenous and endogenous processes are of great importance. In geosciences, discussion of this interaction has been going on for quite some time. In 1763 M.V. Lomonosov had already considered such an idea. In the second half of the 18th century. doctrines were developed about the forces that take part in the formation of the earth's crust and cause changes in its surface - neptunism and plutonism. So, G.A. Werner (Neptunist) believed that the World Ocean plays an exceptional role in the formation of rocks that make up the earth's surface and in the development of relief. In turn, J. Getton (plutonist) introduced into science the concept of the geological cycle and considered changes in relief as an integral part of the geological development of the Earth's interior. The concept of slow and continuous change of the earth's surface under the influence of processes that are still in effect today was put forward by Charles Lyell, who believed that the main forms of relief arise as a result of the movement of the earth's crust, and then are leveled and destroyed under the influence of external forces.
In 1899, V. Davis published the doctrine of geographical (geomorphological) cycles, giving his vision of the interaction of endogenous and exogenous processes. Based on the leading exogenous process, Davis identified “normal” (water-erosion), glacial, marine and arid (aeolian) cycles of relief development. The activity of each of these leading processes occurs in stages and gives different results under conditions of different geological structures, but ultimately leads to the leveling of the relief, to the formation of an almost plain (peneplain). A new development cycle, according to Davis, begins with the tectonic (endogenous) uplift of the peneplain, and the consistent development of the relief from the early (young) stage to the stage of decrepitude can be disrupted by tectonic or climatic changes.
The connection between denudation processes and vertical movements of the earth's crust was considered by the German scientist W. Penka (1924), who developed the principle of studying tectonic movements based on relief analysis. He believed that when analyzing the interaction of exogenous and endogenous processes, one should take into account the continuity and simultaneity of the action of both of these processes. Subsequently, models of interaction between exogenous and endogenous processes became more complex and refined.

§ 8.5. Origin and geological history of the Earth

The emergence of the Earth and the early stages of its formation

One of the important tasks of modern natural science in the field of Earth sciences is to restore the history of its development. According to modern cosmogonic concepts, the Earth was formed from gas and dust matter scattered in the protosolar system. One of the most likely options for the emergence of the Earth is as follows. First, the Sun and a flattened rotating circumsolar nebula were formed from an interstellar gas and dust cloud under the influence, for example, of the explosion of a nearby supernova. Next, the evolution of the Sun and the circumsolar nebula occurred with the transfer of angular momentum from the Sun to the planets by electromagnetic or turbulent-convective methods. Subsequently, the “dusty plasma” condensed into rings around the Sun, and the material of the rings formed the so-called planetesimals, which condensed into planets. After this, a similar process was repeated around the planets, leading to the formation of satellites. It is believed that this process took about 100 million years.
It is assumed that further, as a result of differentiation of the Earth's substance under the influence of its gravitational field and radioactive heating, shells of the Earth, different in chemical composition, state of aggregation and physical properties, emerged and developed - the Earth's geosphere. The heavier material formed a core, probably composed of iron mixed with nickel and sulfur. Some lighter elements remained in the mantle. According to one hypothesis, the mantle is composed of simple oxides of aluminum, iron, titanium, silicon, etc. The composition of the earth's crust has already been discussed in some detail in § 8.2. It is composed of lighter silicates. Even lighter gases and moisture formed the primary atmosphere.
As already mentioned, it is assumed that the Earth was born from a cluster of cold solid particles that fell out of a gas-dust nebula and stuck together under the influence of mutual attraction. As the planet grew, it heated up due to the collision of these particles, which reached several hundred kilometers, like modern asteroids, and the release of heat not only by the naturally radioactive elements now known to us in the crust, but also by more than 10 radioactive isotopes AI, Be, that have become extinct since then. Cl, etc. As a result, complete (in the core) or partial (in the mantle) melting of the substance could occur. In the initial period of its existence, up to approximately 3.8 billion years, the Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the Moon, were subjected to intense bombardment by small and large meteorites. The consequence of this bombardment and the earlier collision of planetesimals could be the release of volatiles and the beginning of the formation of a secondary atmosphere, since the primary one, consisting of gases captured during the formation of the Earth, most likely quickly dissipated in outer space. Somewhat later, the hydrosphere began to form. The atmosphere and hydrosphere thus formed were replenished during the process of degassing of the mantle during volcanic activity.
The fall of large meteorites created extensive and deep craters, similar to those currently observed on the Moon, Mars, and Mercury, where their traces have not been erased by subsequent changes. Cratering could provoke outpourings of magma with the formation of basalt fields similar to those covering the lunar “seas”. This is probably how the primary crust of the Earth was formed, which, however, was not preserved on its modern surface, with the exception of relatively small fragments in the “younger” continental-type crust.
This crust, which already contains granites and gneisses, although with a lower content of silica and potassium than in “normal” granites, appeared at the turn of about 3.8 billion years and is known to us from outcrops within the crystalline shields of almost all continents. The method of formation of the oldest continental crust is still largely unclear. In the composition of this crust, which is everywhere metamorphosed under conditions of high temperatures and pressures, rocks are found whose textural features indicate accumulation in an aquatic environment, i.e. in this distant era the hydrosphere already existed. The emergence of the first crust, similar to the modern one, required the supply of large quantities of silica, aluminum, and alkalis from the mantle, while now mantle magmatism creates a very limited volume of rocks enriched in these elements. It is believed that 3.5 billion years ago, gray gneiss crust, named after the predominant type of rocks composing it, was widespread across the area of ​​modern continents. In our country, for example, it is known on the Kola Peninsula and in Siberia, in particular in the river basin. Aldan.

Principles of periodization of the geological history of the Earth

Subsequent events in geological time are often determined according to relative geochronology, categories “ancient”, “younger”. For example, some era is older than some other. Individual segments of geological history are called (in order of decreasing duration) zones, eras, periods, epochs, centuries. Their identification is based on the fact that geological events are imprinted in rocks, and sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks are located in layers in the earth's crust. In 1669, N. Stenoi established the law of bedding sequence, according to which the underlying layers of sedimentary rocks are older than the overlying ones, i.e. formed before them. Thanks to this, it became possible to determine the relative sequence of formation of layers, and therefore the geological events associated with them.
The main one in relative geochronology is the biostratigraphic, or paleontological, method of establishing the relative age and sequence of occurrence of rocks. This method was proposed by W. Smith at the beginning of the 19th century, and then developed by J. Cuvier and A. Brongniard. The fact is that in most sedimentary rocks you can find the remains of animal or plant organisms. J.B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin established that animal and plant organisms over the course of geological history gradually improved in the struggle for existence, adapting to changing living conditions. Some animal and plant organisms died out at certain stages of the Earth's development, and were replaced by others, more advanced ones. Thus, from the remains of previously living, more primitive ancestors found in some layer, one can judge the relatively more ancient age of this layer.
Another method of geochronological division of rocks, especially important for the division of igneous formations of the ocean floor, is based on the property of magnetic susceptibility of rocks and minerals formed in the Earth's magnetic field. With a change in the orientation of the rock relative to the magnetic field or the field itself, part of the “innate” magnetization is retained, and the change in polarity is reflected in the change in the orientation of the remanent magnetization of the rocks. Currently, a scale of change of such eras has been established.
Absolute geochronology - the study of the measurement of geological time expressed in ordinary absolute astronomical units(years) - determines the time of occurrence, completion and duration of all geological events, primarily the time of formation or transformation (metamorphism) of rocks and minerals, since the age of geological events is determined by their age. The main method here is to analyze the ratio of radioactive substances and their decay products in rocks formed in different eras.
The oldest rocks are currently established in Western Greenland (3.8 billion years old). The longest age (4.1 - 4.2 billion years) was obtained from zircons from Western Australia, but the zircon here occurs in a redeposited state in Mesozoic sandstones. Taking into account the ideas about the simultaneous formation of all planets of the Solar system and the Moon and the age of the most ancient meteorites (4.5-4.6 billion years) and ancient lunar rocks (4.0-4.5 billion years), the age of the Earth is taken to be 4.6 billion years
In 1881, at the II International Geological Congress in Bologna (Italy), the main divisions of combined stratigraphic (for separating layered sedimentary rocks) and geochronological scales were approved. According to this scale, the history of the Earth was divided into four eras in accordance with the stages of development of the organic world: 1) Archean, or Archeozoic - the era of ancient life; 2) Paleozoic - the era of ancient life; 3) Mesozoic - the era of middle life; 4) Cenozoic - era of new life. In 1887, the Proterozoic era, the era of primary life, was separated from the Archean era. Later the scale was improved. One of the options for the modern geochronological scale is presented in Table. 8.1. The Archean era is divided into two parts: early (older than 3500 million years) and late Archean; Proterozoic - also into two: early and late Proterozoic; in the latter, the Riphean (the name comes from the ancient name of the Ural Mountains) and Vendian periods are distinguished. The Phanerozoic zone is divided into Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras and consists of 12 periods.

Table 8.1. Geochronological scale

Eon			Age (beginning), Ma
Phanerozoic	Cenozoic	Quaternary
		Neogene
		Paleogene
	Mesozoic
		Triassic
	Paleozoic	Permian
		Coal
		Devonian
		Silurian
		Ordovician
		Cambrian
cryptozoic	Proterozoic	Vendian
		Riphean
		Karelian
	Archean
	Catarhean

The main stages of the evolution of the earth's crust

Let us briefly consider the main stages of the evolution of the earth's crust as an inert substrate on which the diversity of the surrounding nature developed.
INapxee The still quite thin and plastic crust, under the influence of stretching, experienced numerous discontinuities through which basaltic magma again rushed to the surface, filling troughs hundreds of kilometers long and many tens of kilometers wide, known as greenstone belts (they owe this name to the predominant greenschist low-temperature metamorphism of basaltic rocks). breeds). Along with basalts, among the lavas of the lower, most powerful part of the section of these belts, there are high-magnesium lavas, indicating a very high degree of partial melting of mantle matter, which indicates a high heat flow, much higher than today. The development of greenstone belts consisted of a change in the type of volcanism in the direction of an increase in the content of silicon dioxide (SiO2), in compression deformations and metamorphism of sedimentary-volcanogenic fulfillment, and, finally, in the accumulation of clastic sediments, indicating the formation of mountainous terrain.
After the change of several generations of greenstone belts, the Archean stage of the evolution of the earth's crust ended 3.0 -2.5 billion years ago with the massive formation of normal granites with a predominance of K2O over Na2O. Granitization, as well as regional metamorphism, which in some places reached a high level, led to the formation of mature continental crust over most of the area of ​​modern continents. However, this crust also turned out to be insufficiently stable: at the beginning of the Proterozoic era it experienced fragmentation. At this time, a planetary network of faults and cracks arose, filled with dikes (plate-shaped geological bodies). One of them, the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe, is more than 500 km long and up to 10 km wide. In addition, rifting appeared for the first time, giving rise to zones of subsidence, powerful sedimentation and volcanism. Their evolution led to the creation at the end early Proterozoic(2.0-1.7 billion years ago) folded systems that again welded together fragments of the Archean continental crust, which was facilitated by a new era of powerful granite formation.
As a result, by the end of the Early Proterozoic (at the turn of 1.7 billion years ago), mature continental crust already existed on 60–80% of the area of ​​its modern distribution. Moreover, some scientists believe that at this turn the entire continental crust constituted a single massif - the supercontinent Megagaea (big earth), which on the other side of the globe was opposed by an ocean - the predecessor of the modern Pacific Ocean - Megathalassa (big sea). This ocean was less deep than modern oceans, because the growth of the volume of the hydrosphere due to degassing of the mantle in the process of volcanic activity continues throughout the subsequent history of the Earth, although more slowly. It is possible that the prototype of Megathalassa appeared even earlier, at the end of the Archean.
In the Catarchean and early Archean, the first traces of life appeared - bacteria and algae, and in the late Archean, algal calcareous structures - stromatolites - spread. In the late Archean, a radical change in the composition of the atmosphere began, and in the early Proterozoic, ended: under the influence of plant activity, free oxygen appeared in it, while the Catarchean and early Archean atmosphere consisted of water vapor, CO2, CO, CH4, N, NH3 and H2S with an admixture of HC1 , HF and inert gases.
In the Late Proterozoic(1.7-0.6 billion years ago) Megagaia began to gradually split, and this process sharply intensified at the end of the Proterozoic. Its traces are extended continental rift systems buried at the base of the sedimentary cover of ancient platforms. Its most important result was the formation of vast intercontinental mobile belts - the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, Ural-Okhotsk, which separated the continents of North America, Eastern Europe, East Asia and the largest fragment of Megagaea - the southern supercontinent Gondwana. The central parts of these belts developed on the newly formed ocean crust during rifting, i.e. the belts represented ocean basins. Their depth gradually increased as the hydrosphere grew. At the same time, mobile belts developed along the periphery of the Pacific Ocean, the depth of which also increased. Climatic conditions became more contrasting, as evidenced by the appearance, especially at the end of the Proterozoic, of glacial deposits (tillites, ancient moraines and fluvio-glacial sediments).
Paleozoic stage The evolution of the earth's crust was characterized by the intensive development of mobile belts - intercontinental and continental margins (the latter on the periphery of the Pacific Ocean). These belts were divided into marginal seas and island arcs, their sedimentary-volcanogenic strata experienced complex fold-thrust and then normal fault deformations, granites were intruded into them and folded mountain systems were formed on this basis. This process was uneven. It distinguishes a number of intense tectonic epochs and granitic magmatism: the Baikal - at the very end of the Proterozoic, the Salair (from the Salair ridge in Central Siberia) - at the end of the Cambrian, the Takovsky (from the Takovsky Mountains in the eastern USA) - at the end of the Ordovician, the Caledonian ( from the ancient Roman name for Scotland) - at the end of the Silurian, Acadian (Acadia is the ancient name of the northeastern states of the USA) - in the middle of the Devonian, Sudeten - at the end of the Early Carboniferous, Saale (from the Saale River in Germany) - in the middle of the Early Permian. The first three tectonic eras of the Paleozoic are often combined into the Caledonian era of tectogenesis, the last three - into the Hercynian or Variscan. In each of the listed tectonic epochs, certain parts of the mobile belts turned into folded mountain structures, and after destruction (denudation) they became part of the foundation of young platforms. But some of them partially experienced activation in subsequent eras of mountain building.
By the end of the Paleozoic, the intercontinental mobile belts were completely closed and filled with folded systems. As a result of the death of the North Atlantic belt, the North American continent closed with the East European continent, and the latter (after the completion of the development of the Ural-Okhotsk belt) with the Siberian continent, and the Siberian continent with the Chinese-Korean one. As a result, the supercontinent Laurasia was formed, and the death of the western part of the Mediterranean belt led to its unification with the southern supercontinent - Gondwana - into one continental block - Pangea. At the end of the Paleozoic - beginning of the Mesozoic, the eastern part of the Mediterranean belt turned into a huge bay of the Pacific Ocean, along the periphery of which folded mountain structures also rose.
Against the background of these changes in the structure and topography of the Earth, the development of life continued. The first animals appeared in the late Proterozoic, and at the very dawn of the Phanerozoic, almost all types of invertebrates existed, but they were still devoid of shells or shells, which have been known since the Cambrian. In the Silurian (or already in the Ordovician), vegetation began to emerge on land, and at the end of the Devonian, forests existed, which became most widespread in the Carboniferous period. Fish appeared in the Silurian, amphibians - in the Carboniferous.
Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras - the last major stage in the development of the structure of the earth's crust, which is marked by the formation of modern oceans and the separation of modern continents. At the beginning of the stage, in the Triassic, Pangea still existed, but already in the early Jurassic period it again split into Laurasia and Gondwana due to the emergence of the latitudinal Tethys Ocean, stretching from Central America to Indochina and Indonesia, and in the west and east it connected with the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 8.6); this ocean included the Central Atlantic. From here, at the end of the Jurassic, the process of continental spreading spread to the north, creating during the Cretaceous and early Paleogene the North Atlantic, and starting from the Paleogene - the Eurasian basin of the Arctic Ocean (the Amerasian basin arose earlier as part of the Pacific Ocean). As a result, North America separated from Eurasia. In the Late Jurassic, the formation of the Indian Ocean began, and from the beginning of the Cretaceous, the South Atlantic began to open from the south. This marked the beginning of the collapse of Gondwana, which existed as a single entity throughout the Paleozoic. At the end of the Cretaceous, the North Atlantic joined the South Atlantic, separating Africa from South America. At the same time, Australia separated from Antarctica, and at the end of the Paleogene the latter separated from South America.
Thus, by the end of the Paleogene, all modern oceans took shape, all modern continents became isolated, and the appearance of the Earth acquired a form that was basically close to the present one. However, there were no modern mountain systems yet.

Intense mountain building began in the late Paleogene (40 million years ago), culminating in the last 5 million years. This stage of the formation of young fold-cover mountain structures and the formation of revived arched block mountains is identified as neotectonic. In fact, the neotectonic stage is a substage of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic stage of the Earth's development, since it was at this stage that the main features of the modern relief of the Earth took shape, starting with the distribution of oceans and continents.
At this stage, the formation of the main features of modern fauna and flora was completed. The Mesozoic era was the era of reptiles, mammals became dominant in the Cenozoic, and humans appeared in the late Pliocene. At the end of the Early Cretaceous, angiosperms appeared and the land acquired grass cover. At the end of the Neogene and Anthropocene, the high latitudes of both hemispheres were covered by powerful continental glaciation, relics of which are the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland. This was the third major glaciation in the Phanerozoic: the first took place in the Late Ordovician, the second - at the end of the Carboniferous - the beginning of the Permian; both of them were distributed within Gondwana.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL

1. What are spheroid, ellipsoid and geoid? What are the parameters of the ellipsoid adopted in our country? Why is it needed?
2. What is the internal structure of the Earth? On what basis is a conclusion made about its structure?
3. What are the main physical parameters of the Earth and how do they change with depth?
4. What is the chemical and mineralogical composition of the Earth? On what basis is a conclusion made about the chemical composition of the entire Earth and the earth’s crust?
5. What are the main types of the earth's crust currently distinguished?
6. What is the hydrosphere? What is the water cycle in nature? What are the main processes occurring in the hydrosphere and its elements?
7. What is atmosphere? What is its structure? What processes occur within its boundaries? What is weather and climate?
8. Define endogenous processes. What endogenous processes do you know? Briefly describe them.
9. What is the essence of plate tectonics? What are its main provisions?

10. Define exogenous processes. What is the main essence of these processes? What endogenous processes do you know? Briefly describe them.
11. How do endogenous and exogenous processes interact? What are the results of the interaction of these processes? What is the essence of the theories of V. Davis and V. Penk?

1. What are the modern ideas about the origin of the Earth? How did its early formation as a planet occur?
2. What is the basis for periodization of the geological history of the Earth?

14. How did the earth's crust develop in the geological past of the Earth? What are the main stages in the development of the earth's crust?

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