A. V. Lunacharsky in 1912 published the article “Thirty-six plots”, which provides a list of Georges Polti. It's about about some magic number“36” is a limit that, according to literary scholars, cannot be exceeded when listing the themes of the plots of plays, tragedies, and novels. All the variety of plot variations is ultimately reduced to 36 types, which was compiled by J. Polti. Sometimes they refer to Aristotle, who supposedly was the first to establish this “limit of tragedies.”
The fifth and final step of amplification can be achieved using this famous list. Any “semantic circle” of exhaustive combinations of possible actions obtained in a live dialogue with the client can be reduced using Husserl’s “phenomenological reduction” to one, single topic of the list.
The tragic myth is the logical skeleton of life and the forces operating in it! The tragedy describes not the characters of people, not their lyrical moods, but the personified Forces of Life. Knowing the “collision pattern” of these forces, one can see how fate leads the hero and how the hero freely chooses his destiny. To illustrate the work with J. Polti’s list, I would like to take my favorite opera by Verdi “Aida”.
Example 5.6. "Operatic".
The tragedy of Aida and Radamès is the “Crime of Love.” Aida, the captive queen of Ethiopia, fell in love with the enemy, and Radames, the military leader of Egypt, betrayed his homeland for the sake of his beloved, refused the hand of the pharaoh's daughter Amneris, and also refused to flee with Aida to Ethiopia, which led to the death of both him and Aida. Crime - twists and turns, pathos. The strongest intensity of feelings during the trial and execution of Radames. Fear and compassion are evoked by the act of Radames, who voluntarily surrendered to the priests, acted according to his conscience, but against love. Aida’s act evokes even greater fear and compassion - she could have hidden in the turmoil, taking advantage of Radames’s surrender, but she voluntarily went to death for the sake of love, forgetting about her father, about her Motherland (the queen!), about her young life.
And here they are together in a stone coffin, in a dungeon, from where they will not get out, where they will die a painful death. But for them there is no death! They are happy to find themselves in each other's arms. The beautiful melody of the last duet of Aida and Radamès, framed by the melancholy farewell moans of Amneris, completes the tragedy. Catharsis, cleansing. Everything is ruined for this beautiful young couple. There is only one thing left - Beauty in everything: beautiful true love, a beautiful end to life, or rather, short, but absolutely happy life Together, Absolute Intimacy, in a coffin, however, not disturbed by anyone, even guarded by all the military and spiritual power of Egypt! Beautiful death. Beautiful life after Death in the words given: “O terra addio...” (Oh, earth, goodbye...).
Last picture: there are only two on stage, they sit hugging each other, their thoughts “on the wings of love” are carried away to freedom. There is nothing particularly valuable in life except love! All values, except love, are transitory; they accompany a person only to the grave, and love even after. Conclusion: love stronger than death, it exceeds death.
The name Aida contains both the word “Hades” (God of death, “invisible”, Lord of the kingdom of the dead), and the additional “Aaa...” - openness, space, air, space, “fly away”... Almost like the Russian “Aida... in... "(Voznesensky, "Let's go to the cinema!"). Aida leads Radames out of the bitter labyrinth of painful contradictions - love, betrayal, duty, personal life, power, submission, a brilliant future, punishment by death, justice and injustice... Only love can lead a man out of this labyrinth.
Let's remember how famous novels end:
“Crime and Punishment” - spring has come, Sonya’s love has poured out on Rodion Raskolnikov and “casuistry, sharpened like a razor,” has become unnecessary.”
“The Master and Margarita” - “Leave them alone,” said Woland. And the long-awaited dawn came for the Master and Margarita, and they went together to their eternal home..."
“Precipice” by I. A. Goncharov - far from Russia, the eternal wanderer Paradise ends his life in love: “Everyone stood behind him and fervently called to him - three figures: his Vera, his Marfenka, his grandmother. And behind them stood and attracted him more strongly to her - another, gigantic figure, another great “grandmother” - Russia.
These examples can be multiplied, but it is already clear: love connects two terrible extremes, bridges the enormous gap between Life and Death. IN Greek mythology the god Hermes had the ability to “transport” the souls of the dead to the kingdom of the dead, which is why he was called “psychopomp” - the carrier of souls. C. Jung attributed this function of the Guide between consciousness and the unconscious to the archetypes Anima (for men) and Animus (for women). Anima is the soul of a man, his Eternal Beloved, his Aida. The correct death is one in which his beloved comes to the person doomed to death and remains with him forever, setting off on the path to an eternal home, like Margarita. The correct death is one that is in no hurry to snatch the condemned woman from the arms of her Beloved - Radames or the Master.
Aida is a “psychopomp”, only on the contrary, she brings out of the kingdom of Hades a thought that got there during the life of the owner, brings the Mind into a state of “self-pressure”, self-awareness, self-sufficiency. In this state there are no concepts of “death” and “life”. “Leave them alone” and only love will remain.
The meaning curve of the drama “Crime of Love” in classical plots can follow the following well-known topics:
- Love Crime - Romeo and Juliet
- Involuntary crime - Radames and Aida
- Love is a Crime - Tristan and Isolde
- Death from the redivision of Love - Ophelia and Hamlet
- Love as lawlessness (above the law) - Christ and New Testament
- Love is like lawlessness (below the law) - a cadet from The Barber of Siberia.
- Lawlessness of Power (“Love for the People”)
- Love is like madness together
- The Secret Connection of Love and Death
- Asociality of Love - hippie
- Laughable destruction of the world - sex carnival
- The world's cruelty to loving couple.
Love and law are antinomies; they cannot be united so that one dissolves in the other. If love passes into the law (legal channel), then it weakens, withers and comes to naught. If the law turns into love, then the law itself becomes unnecessary. The world is cruel to a loving couple, so the couple isolates themselves from the world so as not to come into conflict with the world. If you don’t have time to retire, then a crime of love occurs!
The main idea that arises from the stringing together of various plots of the drama “Crime of Love” is the following: love is always “lawless,” that is, it does not obey any laws, outside the law, above (like Christ) or below. Love expresses the personal principle in a person, since personality is something that does not obey the laws of society, the universe, and nature. As a person, a person is always One and does not belong to any system. The personality is the center of the world, “everything revolves” around it, from it comes the law and force of life - Dynamos, the prime mover of life (ancient Greeks, Aristotle), the source of physiological activity (N.A. Bernstein), etc.
Being a personalistic factor, love puts a person in a dilemma: “to transgress or not to transgress.” If you “don’t transgress,” you will have to fight love, run away from it, even at the cost own life, and this is a crime against yourself!
Writer Kurt Vonnegut managed to fit all the works of world literature and cinema into eight simple stories. In general, all stories tell us about how people get out of pits, meet their other half, or lose everything they could get in this life. This Saturday marks the eighth anniversary of the writer's death.
This Saturday marks 8 years since the death of the famous American writer Kurt Vonnegut. Many people know him from his novels and short stories, which has gained great popularity.
The writer himself not only created stories, but also analyzed how others did it. His master's thesis in anthropology, which he wrote at the University of Chicago, was devoted to the principle by which the plots of stories develop in different cultures. In his opinion, all stories can be classified according to the graph of the main character's fate line, which ranges from failure to success. These stories can reveal a lot about the culture in which they were written.
Vonnegut partially presented his theory in the book "Man Without a Country", adding several graphs in which a vertical line indicated the movement from failure to success, and a horizontal line from the beginning to the end of history.
Designer Maya Eilam, based on Vonnegut's lectures, made detailed images of the development of 8 plots highlighted by the writer, with examples from literature and cinema. They are published by the famous American economist Barry Ritzholtz.
Basic plots in literature
The most popular and beloved stories by readers and viewers are “A Man in Complete Ass” and “Boy Meets Girl.” At the same time, their variations can be very different, that is, for example, a guy and a girl don’t necessarily have to appear in the second story. The main thing is the path that the main character takes in different circumstances.
Among the films and books popular in Russia with the plot of “A Man in a Complete Ass” we can include “Robinson Crusoe” and, with some stretch, “Crime and Punishment”, as well as the films “The Lord of the Rings” and “Sanctum”, and more recently “Interstellar”.
The cinematographer also loves this plot very much. It was also used in classic films, for example in " Captive of the Caucasus”, as well as in Hollywood films like “The Notebook” or “Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind”.
Vonnegut sees a slightly different plot in stories about the creation of the world and religious subjects. On the one hand, these stories tell about how God endows man with numerous gifts. On the other hand, the Bible talks about the fall that follows these gifts and deprives humanity of all the benefits that belonged to them.
The stories of the Old Testament include the following: literary works like “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish”, “The Tale of the Golden Cockerel”, as well as a huge number of dystopian novels that depict perfect world, which turns out to be imperfect. With some stretch, this category includes tragedies where everything starts more or less well and then collapses.
Films about the apocalypse can also be included in this category, for example, the popular series “The Walking Dead”: the normal world can be considered a paradise that the heroes lost due to the epidemic. Nowadays, films about the end of the world are becoming increasingly popular.
The plot of the New Testament, according to Vonnegut, is more like modern stories, and what he especially admired was reminiscent of the fairy tale about Cinderella. Here, just as in the stories about the creation of the world, man is endowed with great gifts, then falls, but then gains even greater gifts and eternal good. According to Vonnegut himself, the Cinderella story is so popular that anyone who creates the next retelling of it earns millions.
In films, this plot is quite actively exploited, for example, in the film “Bruce Almighty” the hero Jim Carrey is endowed with the abilities of God, but then he himself spoils everything, although he then corrects his mistakes.
This also includes the famous film “Pretty Woman” with Julia Roberts, which has become a cult film in Russia. The beloved “Moscow Doesn’t Believe in Tears” falls into the same category.
Some works turn out to be more complex. Thus, in Kafka’s “Metamorphoses” the fate of the main character develops from bad to worse, and in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” it is not completely clear whether what happens to the hero is good or bad.
According to Vonnegut, the genius of Hamlet lies precisely in its uncertainty: “Shakespeare told us the truth, and people so rarely do this, being too carried away by their own ups and downs. The truth is that we know so little about life that we are not even able to determine what is good for us and what is bad.”
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Theme with variations
If you've ever watched the movie Groundhog Day with Bill Murray (or Beware of Closing Doors, The Butterfly Effect, Back to the Future...), then you already know what a theme with variations is.
In these films, with each twist in the plot, the images of the heroes or the circumstances in which these heroes find themselves are modified, but at the same time, some things necessarily remain unchanged.
No matter where the action takes place - in the present, past or future - a trailer of manure is still toppled over on Marty McFly's enemies; Gwyneth Paltrow's heroine in both scenarios meets her future boyfriend; Weather columnist Phil Connors wakes up again and again in a Punxsutawney hotel room on Groundhog Day, February 2nd, and most He has already learned the events that await him that day by heart, although thanks to his intervention they “sound” differently each time.
Musical variations are constructed using approximately the same principle (not literally, of course:), only in them the theme song. In each version (\u003d variation) it is painted with ever new colors, and ideally, it also turns with ever new facets, acquires ever new features (in this case it is not necessary to follow its metamorphoses).
Pieces written in the form of a theme with variations are simply a godsend for virtuosos who benefit from showing off by presenting to the listener at once everything they are capable of (, various brilliant...)
Although, of course, the task before the performer here is not only technical. After all, good variations also require a variety of artistic images, characters, moods: here you need to be at the same time a violinist, an artist and an artist, and be able to transform.
Variations by Paganini, Ernst, Khandoshkin
Paganini was very fond of variations. Already in his first solo concert, which he gave at the age of 11, he also played his own variations on the revolutionary song “Carmagnola”. Later Paganini composed many variations on romantic themes: among them “The Witch” on the theme from the ballet “The Wedding of Benevento” by Züssmayr, “Prayer” on one string on the theme from the opera “Moses” by Rossini, “At the hearth I’m no longer sad” on the theme from the opera “Cinderella” by Rossini, “ Trembling of the Heart" on the theme from the opera "Tancred" by Rossini, "How the heart skips a beat" on the theme from the opera "La Belle Miller" by Paisiello. The most “armor-piercing” Paganini variations in technique are on the theme of the English anthem “God Save the Queen!”
The famous 24th Paganini, by the way, also consists entirely of variations. The theme of the caprice - daring, rebellious - undoubtedly should have appealed to the taste of the Carbonari at one time. It is followed by variations that reveal the potential of the theme with different sides. The first - sparkling beads of the volatile fall in cascades, the second - a gloomy minor lace is intertwined with sharp ones, the third - a lyrical sad melody performed by deep ones. And then seven more variations, including variations, and with the left hand, and the finale of and broken lines, forming, as it were, several “terraces”. All this must not just be played, but so that the listener feels as if he is being led through the enfilades of the same building: there must be development, movement forward and a convincing conclusion.
Another famous virtuoso of past eras, Heinrich Ernst also could not ignore the genre of themes with variations. He left us “The Last Rose of Summer,” which now (together with “God Save the Queen!”) scares beginning violinists, and the public at the same time. This extremely difficult piece to perform is written on the theme of the Scottish song of the same name with lyrics by Thomas More. Those who are not delighted with the technical bells and whistles of “Rose” vindictively call it stupid in content and poor in music. But they are unfair to “Rose”. After all, the main thing for variations in it is - great topic. There is also a plot that is quite capable of feeding the imagination. If you read carefully, and then work on the image, phrasing, while listening to the same song in other traditions (performed by Clannad, for example... or opera diva Lily Pons, or Deanna Durbin...) - then the game with this piece will be completely different. But for it to be enjoyable, it is necessary, of course, to emphasize the theme, to play it with a beautiful sound, despite all the and wrapped around it. That is, it is still necessary sing…
“Russian Paganini” Khandoshkin was also a fan of virtuoso variations. He took Russians as his topic folk songs, which acquired under his fingers a new, seemingly unusual shine and color. His song “A Birch Tree Stood in the Field” sounded temperamental and almost rebellious—we probably wouldn’t have guessed about its nature without Khandoshkin.
Philosophical variations
Not only the most virtuosic, but also the deepest in content violin works (“Folia” by Corelli, “Chaconne” by Bach) are written in the form of variations.
The philosophical potential of variations is great because life itself is multivariate. And although in reality we have to choose only one of existing options(that is, we are deprived of the opportunity to see life in all its diversity), in music we can do things differently. By observing how the same topic develops in different planes, we can come to many interesting thoughts and even - who knows? - perhaps it is better to understand the structure of all living things.
1. AMP studies the structure and structure of musical works in their connections with the content of music. This includes: the doctrine of the expressive means of music: musical syntax; about the topic. A special section of the AMP teaching about the main types of structure of works, i.e. about forms in the narrow sense. AMP studies mainly European professional music of the 17th-19th (20th) centuries. Thus, it is assumed that non-European music, folklore, sacred, light and pop music, jazz, early music, and ultra-modern music are not studied. European professional music is based on a musical work - this is a special phenomenon of European musical culture. Its main properties: authorship, musical notation, originality, individuality, artistic value, special laws of internal organization and perception (the presence of a composer, performer, listener). Music as an art form has its own specifics. 1 of the ways to classify types of art is as follows: 1) By the method of disclosing the content: fine, expressive, verbal (verbal); 2) by way of existence: temporary, spatial; 3) by targeting the sense organs: visual, auditory, visual and auditory. Of all the arts, only music is simultaneously expressive, temporal, and auditory. In any form of art there is form and content. The content in any art is, first of all, the person and the surrounding world. Form is the way content elements are organized. In a broad sense, form in music is the content of all expressive means any work. Form in the narrow sense is the type of structure of a work (three-part form, rondo, variations). It has long been noted that music has a huge impact on humans (the myth of Orpheus). Music was often ascribed divine powers. The secret of music's impact has a lot to do with its auditory nature. Vision, hearing(96%), smell, touch, taste (4%). Vision and hearing provide more than 96% of information about the world. But the world is perceived differently by hearing than by sight. Even people's emotional reactions to visual and auditory impressions are largely opposite. Visual impressions are richer than auditory ones, but auditory impressions are more active, more easily overtake a person and are always associated with action and movement. Sound is capable of immediately conveying strong emotions, bypassing the word, as if infecting with this emotion. The power of music is to convey emotions; words are a signal-suggestive effect. Suggestion - suggestion. This effect is common to humans and animals. It operates on a biological subconscious level. In addition to it, music influences through cultural social media. human experience. The sound of organ, harpsichord, brass, etc. immediately evoke appropriate associations. Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 4, part 2-even rhythm embodies a state of rest, no jumps, theme of “Sinbad’s Ship”, part 2 of “Scheherazade”. Image and expression 2 main ways to reveal content in art. An image is a reproduction of external visible objects or phenomena. There is always a convention in the image, a kind of deception. To depict means to imagine something that actually does not exist. Expression is the revelation of the inner through the outer. It is less specific than an image, but the element of convention is smaller. The word-expression itself is a directed movement from the inside to the outside. Harmony and thematicism form the basis of the system of musical forms.
2. Expressive means of music - the mechanism of influence of music is associated with the specifics of the elements of music: 1) Sound-pitch: melody - a monophonic sequence of sounds of different pitches; harmony - combining sounds into chords and connecting chords with each other; register – part of a range, i.e. a complete set of sounds, voices or instruments. High light register – the beginning of the orchestral introduction to Wagner’s opera “Lohengrin”, very low register – Ravel’s introduction to the second piano concerto, Grieg’s “Peer Gynt” “In the Cave of the Mountain King”. 2) Temporary: meter – uniform alternation strong and weak beats, rhythm - the relationship of sounds in duration, tempo - speed, speed of music, agogy - leading, small deviations from the tempo for expressive purposes. 3) Related to the nature of the sound: timbre - the color of the sound, dynamics - volume, sound strength, articulation - the method of sound production. A separate expressive means does not have one constant meaning, but has a whole range of expressive possibilities (in this sense, an expressive means is like a word in a language). Example: rising part 4 – fanfare, expressive character. There must be iambicity, i.e. emphasis on beat 2 (anthem of the Russian Federation, Chopin Etude in E major, op. 10 No. 3, Schumann’s piece “Dreams” from the cycle “Children’s Scenes”). Any expressive effect is achieved with the help of not just one, but a whole series of expressive means (Beethoven’s finale of the 5th symphony, main theme; fortissimo dynamics, major mode, timbre of brass, chord mass, movement of the melody along the triad, marching are important here). This is the transition from part 3 to the finale with a huge crescendo - jubilation, victory. In this case, the means reinforce each other and act unidirectionally. Much less common is the multidirectional action of expressive means, when they seem to contradict each other. Schumann "I'm not angry" from the cycle "The Love of a Poet". The major scale and leisurely tempo are combined here with harshness and dissonance of harmony, i.e. the feeling of bitterness and resentment seems to be hidden in the soul. Mussorgsky's vocal cycle “Without the Sun” from 7, 4 in major (but gloomy, dark). Contradictions in expressive means often arise in music. Example: Schubert “Trout” - a great contradiction between the meaning of the text and the nature of the music in the last two lines of the poem “He took it off with a smile, I gave free rein to tears.” Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 1 hour. A side theme in the reprise - the bright image seems to be distorted and poisoned due to chromatic echoes in the bass. Handel's oratorio "Samson" funeral march of Samson. Musical style is a system of musical thinking, manifested in the choice of a certain range of expressive means. Style is common in different things. Can be understood more broadly: national style in art, music; style of a certain– style of the Viennese classics; the style of one composer. And more narrowly - the style of the late or early work of the composer; style of one work. Scriabin “Poem of Fire” “Promethean Chord”. Musical genres are types, types of musical works that have historically developed in connection with various social functions of music, certain types of its content, life preferences, conditions of performance and perception. Genre (from Latin gen.) is a special morphological category in music. There are genres that are more precise and specific in content (waltz, march), on the other hand, the march can be defined even more precisely: wedding, mourning, military, children's; hip: Viennese, Boston, etc. Suite, symphony, quartet, concert - genres are not very general, broad in meaning. To gain a deeper understanding of the content of music, it is important to be able to correctly identify the genre. Example: Beethoven " Moonlight Sonata» Part 1 – the melody, which does not begin immediately, has clear features of a funeral march. Chopin Prelude in C minor (funeral march). All genres develop from applied (utilitarian) to artistic (aesthetic).
3. In any form of art there is form and content. The content in any art is, first of all, the person and the surrounding world. Form is the way content elements are organized. In a broad sense, form in music is the content of all the expressive means of any work. Form in the narrow sense is the type of structure of a work (three-part form, rondo, variations). In the very in general terms the movement of music is carried out in 2 main ways: - repetition (similarities); - contrasts (dissimilarities). Similarity and contrast are abstract concepts that can only exist in reality within certain limits: in practice, complete similarity and complete contrast are impossible. Mozart Symphony “Jupiter” (contrast). Similarity and contrast in music are certain extreme points, between which there are countless combinations and intermediate options. Repetition can be: exact, Beethoven Sonata No. 18; modified or varied, Beethoven Symphony No. 5 (beginning). The contrast is: radical fundamental, Mozart Symphony No. 41 “Jupiter” (beginning); complementary, Haydn or Mozart (mature) symphony or sonata 1 movement; derivative, Beethoven sonata No. 1 1 movement, main topic, side topic. Derivative contrast is a special dialectical relationship between 2 themes, in which the 2nd theme is both contrasting to the first and related to it. Beethoven sonata No. 1 movement, main party, side party. The themes are contrasting on several levels (stroke, tonality, direction), but they have a common rhythm and melody. Classification of musical forms: 1) Simple forms: period (simple one-part), simple two-part, simple three-part. 2) Complex forms: complex two-part, arched (concentric) ABCVA. 3) Variations: for a sustained bass, for a sustained melody, simple variations, double, strict, free. 4) Rondo. 5) Sonata form. 6) Rondo Sonata. 7) Cyclic forms: sonata-symphonic cycle, suite, special types of cycles. 8) Free and mixed forms. 9) Polyphonic forms (fugue, invention - invention). 10) Vocal forms. 11) Major musical and stage forms: opera, ballet, cantata and oratorio.
4. Theme is a musical idea that is distinguished by a sufficiently structural design, individuality and character, and lies at the basis of development. Thema (Greek) – underlying or subject. A term from rhetoric, where it meant the subject of discussion. Subjectum (lat.) – subject. Sujet (French) – theme. Usually the theme is stated at the beginning of the work and then repeated exactly or with changes. There are usually several themes in a work. Sometimes (in miniatures) there is only one topic. Chopin Prelude in A major. Bach HTC Prelude in C major. There is also non-thematic material in the work that highlights the themes and connects them with each other. It is also called general forms of movement. Theme is a historical concept, i.e. it does not yet exist in the music of the Middle Ages, but on the other hand, it may disappear in the music of the 20th century. The theme can vary in scale (the leitmotif of fate Wagner “Colsoni Belunga”, Tchaikovsky “Francesca da Rimini” - written on the basis of Dante’s “Divine Poem”. Themes in polyphony and homophony are significantly different: in polyphony the theme is monophonic and imitated in different voices; in homophony - melody + accompaniment. In addition, the theme can represent figuration (from the Latin figuratio - giving shape, figurative image) in music, complication of the musical fabric with melodic or rhythmic elements Chopin Fantasia-impromptu to sharp minor Chopin Etude in F minor op. 25 No. 2. In terms of figurative content, themes can be homogeneous (Mozart Symphony No. 40, 1st part, main part) and contrasting (Mozart Symphony No. 41 in C major “Jupiter,” 1st part, main part). For example: heroic, lyrical, romance, pop, etc. Levels of musical organization There are three levels of organization in a musical work: textural, syntactic, compositional. They differ in the psychology of perception and in their properties. The texture level is like a vertical slice in a short period of sound (texture is the structure of the musical fabric). Here, hearing mainly works: the number of votes is analyzed; articulation; dynamics; harmony (1-2 chords). Syntactic level - syntax in music is small, relatively final parts (mainly sentences and periods). At the syntactic level, these constructions of average size can be heard. There is a feeling of movement of the music here, an inertia of perception appears. The support here is speech experience, as well as associations with various types of movement. Compositional level - the level of the work as a whole, or its large completed parts. The mechanisms of operational and long-term memory, logical thinking skills are included here. The associative base is plot, drama, development of events.
5. The syntactic level in music presupposes the inertia of perception of the sensation of movement in music. Meter plays a huge role here - the alternation of supporting and non-supporting beats. The division into support and non-support has great importance throughout a person's life. In music, support and non-support exist not only at the level of beats, but also at the level of 2,4,8 bars, as well as within each beat. In European music, square formations play a huge role, i.e. 4.8, 16 bars. In square constructions the principle of iambiism is very important:
a combination of one or two unstressed words - stop. Arsis (position, raising the foot) -> Thesis (dropping the foot)
The first bar of 8 is heard as light, the second as heavy, and then the inertia of perception. Thus, the odd bars will be light and the even bars will be heavy, but the degree of severity of the odd bars is different:
The functions of the even bars are as follows: the second bar is a simple stop, caesura; 4th bar – half cadence; 6th cycle – waiting for continuation; Bar 8 – cadence. One of the first to use this system of punctuation marks was the outstanding German theorist Hugo Riemann. Squareness can be violated in different ways: - expansion of Tchaikovsky “January at the Fireplace”: 1234 5677a7b8
Beethoven Sonata No. 7: 1233a4 5678
Compression - skipping the initial or one of the middle bars, or combining 2 bars into one: Mozart Overture to “The Marriage of Figaro” ch. subject: 234 5678
Truncation - skipping the last bar: Verdi's "Song of the Duke" from "Rigaletto" 1234 567
Scale-syntactic structures. At the syntactic level, several stable types are distinguished - scale-syntactic structures: 1) - Periodicity - a sequence of the same number of cycles in structure:
Children's song “The horned goat is coming” from 100 songs of R.-K.; - paraperiodicity: aa1 vv1: “There was a birch tree in the field,” R.-K. “Ay, there’s a little lime in the field” from “The Snow Maiden”, “Sadko” “Lullaby of the Magi”: aa1vv1ss1dd1d2d3...quarter periodicity. 2) Summation - a sequence of several smaller constructions and one larger one: 1+1+2: “Hey, let’s whoop”, Glinka “Waltz-Fantasy” main theme: 3+3+6. 3) Fragmentation - a sequence of one larger structure and several smaller ones: 2+1+1: Dunaevsky’s “Merry Wind”, Tchaikovsky’s “Children’s Album” “Waltz”. 4) Crushing with closure: 2+2+1+1+2: Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 1st movement side theme, Beethoven Symphony No. 9 Theme of joy from the finale: 4+4+1+1+2+4.
6. A period is the smallest of musical forms, containing one, relatively complete musical thought (from the ancient Greek circle, circumambulation). A period contains one topic. In Russian music theory, a period is understood only as a stable expositional presentation of a theme. The period may not be in development, although a superficial resemblance is possible. An independent work of small scale is often written in period form. For example: many preludes by Chopin, Lyadov, Scriabin. A period is often part of a larger whole. The period is characterized from 3 points of view: thematic content; harmonic content; structures. Based on these principles, they distinguish: 1) the period of a single structure and the period of several (usually 2) sentences; 2) the period of repeated and non-repeated construction (the beginnings of the sentences are similar or not); 3) period square and non-square; 4) the period is single-tone and modulating. Examples: 1) Beethoven Sonata No. 6 2nd movement main theme, Tchaikovsky Overture-fantasy “Romeo and Juliet” (love theme), Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 first movement secondary part. 2) Chopin Prelude in A major, Waltz in C sharp minor (repeated structure); Shostakovich Gavotte from the cycle “Dances of the Dolls”, Wagner Overture to the opera “Tannhäuser” (Pilgrim Chorale). 3) Tchaikovsky “Seasons” “April”, “January” (4+6). The period may not be closed, i.e. do not have a final cadence and go into an unstable developing presentation. Tchaikovsky “Seasons” “February” (“Maslenitsa”). Sometimes a period can be internally complicated: each of its two sentences is internally divided into 2 more sentences. If the cadences that complete both large sentences are similar, then the period is called repeated; if they are not similar, then it is complex or double. Tchaikovsky Sentimental Waltz, Chopin Etude in A minor op.10 No. 2, Chopin Fantasia in F minor. In the music of the Baroque era, a period of the unfolding type is often encountered. It has 3 semantic parts: core, deployment, cadence. Bach Italian Concerto main theme; French and English suites have initial themes of alemandes and chimes (however, the usual period is found in sarabandes, gavottes, and minuets).
7. Simple shapes. A simple 2-part form, the first part of which is a period, and the second part does not exceed the period. In terms of complexity, this form is next after the period (AB). 1 hour – there can be a period of any type and size. 2h. - is more diverse and can be related to the 1st in different ways. Types of relationships between parts: 1) Chorus - chorus (chorus - 1 hour, chorus - choir). A verse song, where the lyrics change in the chorus but remain the same in the chorus. 2) A pair of periodicities (aa1вв1). “Oh, there’s a sticky thing in the field.” 3) Theme – acting out (typical for instrumental music). "Children's Album" by Tchaikovsky "The Organ Grinder Sings". Chopin Waltz in A major op.34 no.1, Waltz in C sharp minor op.64 no.2. Lyadov Musical snuffbox trio. 4) The ratio is typical for instrumental music: period 1 – exposition, period 2 – development and completion. Beethoven Sonata No. 23 “Appassionata” 2 hours. theme of variations. This simple two-part form can be reprise and non-reprise. Reprisal - where at the end of 2 hours. a fragment of the initial period is reproduced. Tchaikovsky variations for piano in F major theme. Grieg ballad in the form of variations on a theme. Mozart Symphony No. 40 finale. Unreputed: Beethoven sonata no. 23 theme, sonata no. 25 finale.
8. A simple three-part form is a form of three parts, the first of which is a period, and the rest are no more than a period. A (exposition, initial period), B (middle), C (recapitulation). Parts of the form can be repeated according to the following principle:
There are two types of middle: developmental (based on the material of the initial period); contrasting (on new material) is very rare. Beethoven Sonata No. 20 2nd movement main theme. The middle in scale can be equal to the initial period, and it can also be larger or smaller than it. The musical material in the middle is presented unsteadily, i.e. here there is usually no single key, sequences are used, small, fractional constructions are used, squareness, if it existed, is violated. A rare example of a 3-movement form with a contrasting middle, Grieg nocturne op.54 No. 4 (lyric pieces, notebook No. 5).
Rachmaninov Prelude in C sharp minor op.3 No.1 (dynamic reprise). A reprise in a simple 3-part form can be accurate (da capo from Italian from the head) and inaccurate (varied, shortened or expanded, tonally changed, dynamized). Rachmaninov Prelude in G minor op.23 (complex 3-part form A (ava) B A). Mussorgsky's "Pictures at an Exhibition" "Two Jews, Rich and Poor" (by the author "Goldenberg and Shmul (e)") is a unique case of reprise, connecting two themes - the initial theme and the theme of the contrasting middle (synthetic reprise is very rare). Both themes retain their character and tone.
9. Complex shapes. Complex (composite) forms are those that are made up of simple ones. These forms are larger-scale, more structurally developed, and, as a rule, multi-tonal. This includes: complex 2-part and complex 3-part forms. A complex 3-part form is a reprisal form, each part of which exceeds a period:
Two main varieties: with a trio; with the episode. A complex three-part with a trio is a form where the middle part is written in a stable simple 2 or 3-part form. An episode is a piece of new material that does not contain a simple oral form. Reminiscent of the development of sonata form. A complex three-part system with a trio is found in dance music, as well as in minuets and scherzos, sonata-symphonic cycles. The name “trio” indicates that the middle part was once actually performed by 3 musicians: tutti – trio – tutti. The tonalities of the middle part are usually different. This is the mode of the same name, parallel, subdominant. The middle part usually has a bright contrast. The pace may vary (usually slower). But when moving to a general reprise, the contrast usually smoothes out:
The reprise can be exact (da capo) or modified. Less often, with a change of pace. Possible introduction and code. The coda may repeat the material of the middle part - a trio or an episode.
10. Special varieties of complex 3-part form: 1) Double three-part form: ABA1B1A (2). The 2nd part of the trio is repeated with transposition. Chopin Mazurka in B major op.56 No. 1 H Es H G H – equidistant. Chopin Nocturne in G major op.37 No.2, Chopin sonata No.3 in B minor 4th movement. 2) 3-5-part form - this is a complex 3-part form with exact repetition of both parts:
Glinka “March of Chernomor” - there are no connections between the parts. Beethoven Symphony No. 7 Scherzo 3 movement; Symphony No. 4 minuet 3 movement. 3) Complex 3-part with 2 trios. AWASA. Externally, the scheme of this form coincides with the rondo scheme. The difference is the absence of transitions and connections in a complex 3-part and their presence in a rondo. Mozart Haffner-symphony, Haffner-serenade. This form is associated with the traditions of light entertainment music. I.S. Bach Brandenburg Concerto No. 1: Minuet – Trio1 – Minuet – Polonaise – Trio2 – Minuet. Mendelssohn A Midsummer Night's Dream Wedding March Theme – trio1 – Theme (abbreviated) – trio2 – theme – coda. 4) a complex 3-part with 2 trios in a row. ABCA. Beethoven Symphony No. 6 “Pastoral” 3 movement. The village orchestra “Merry Gathering of Villagers” is depicted. Chopin Polonaise in G sharp minor op.44. Sometimes there is a complication of a complex 3-part form, in which its parts are not written in simple forms, and in more developed ones. Beethoven Symphony No. 9 Scherzo 2 hours. A (sonata form) B (trio) A (sonata form). Borodin Symphony No. 2 “Bogatyrskaya” 2nd movement scherzo. A (sonata form without development) B (trio) A (sonata form without development). Quite often there are cases of a form intermediate between the simple and complex 3-part form:
11. A complex two-part form is a non-reprising form in which at least one of the parts is written in a stable form that exceeds the period. AB. The specificity of the form is in its openness, some incompleteness -> the form requires special conditions of existence, under which reprise is not needed. This is possible in vocal music, in opera, where there is text and plot. An operatic aria often has a first introductory section, and a second – the main one, according to the recitative + aria scheme. But it happens that both sections are approximately equal in value, the image develops, and a return to the original state is not required. Glinka Cavatina and Antonida's rondo "Ivan Susanin". Concentric – multi-subject form, refers to complex forms. ABCWA or ABCDSWA. Aria “Swan-Birds” “The Tale of Tsar Saltan” R.-K. ABCDSWA. In the center, the bird swan reveals the secret of its origin (D). “Sadko” 2nd picture theme of swans and ducks, vocalization of the sea princess Volkhov, lyrical duet and then the events repeat. Schubert "Shelter" from "Swan Song". Hindemith's "Hin und zuruck" ("There and Back Again") is a 17-part concentric form in which the plot is driven by comedy.
12. Variation form. Its varieties. Variations are a form, a composition. From the presentation of the topic and a number of its modified repetitions. AA1A2A3A4…. Another name for a variational form is a variational cycle. Variato is weak. Change. Variation is one of the most important principles of development in music, understood extremely broadly. The specificity of variations is in the simultaneous action of two opposing principles of conservation and change. This is the similarity between the variations and the verse form in vocal music. a separate work or part of a section. There are several types variation form: by main voice (for a sustained melody, for a sustained bass); by methods of variation (strict, free, polyphonic); by number of topics (simple, double). Theme of variations m.b. own or borrowed. The number of variations is almost unlimited, i.e. this form is open, but usually there are no more than 32 variations. Example: Beethoven 32 variations; Handel Passacaglia g-moll: the most stable - harmony, var. 1: the principle of decreasing durations; var. 2: voice transmission from pr.r. in lev. R.; 3 var. Handel has very important heroics: dotted rhythm, dynamics, dense texture. Var 7: starting character again; var 11 - Albertian basses, harmonies break: mind appears53. There are 15 variations in total.
13.Variations on basso ostinato. Variations on basso ostinato are a form that is based on the constant implementation of the theme in the bass and the constant updating of the upper voices. used in choruses (J. S. Bach. Crucifixus from the Mass in B minor) or in arias (Purcell. Dido’s Aria from the opera “Dido and Aeneas”). The theme is a small (2-8 bars, usually 4) single-voice sequence, melodized to varying degrees. Usually her character is very generalized. Many themes represent a descending movement from the I to the V degrees, often chromatic. There are themes that are less generalized and more melodically designed (Bach. Passacaglia in organ minor). In the process of variation, the theme can move into the upper voices (Bach. Passacaglia in organ minor), change figuratively and even transpose into another key (Buxtehude. Passacaglia in D minor for organ).Due to the brevity of the topic, variations are often combined in pairs (based on the principle of similar texture of the upper voices). The boundaries of variations do not always clearly coincide in all voices. In Bach, several variations in one texture often form a single powerful development, their boundaries disappear. If this principle is carried out throughout the entire work, the whole can hardly be called variations, since it is impossible to recognize variations in the conduct of the bass in the lower voice without taking into account the upper ones. A kind of counterpoint of form arises. Completion of the cycle may extend beyond variations. Thus, the organ Passacaglia of Bacchus ends with a large fugue.
14. Strict ornamental variations. This type of variation is very common among the Viennese classics. Another name for variations is figurative variations. The number of variations is not large, often no more than 5-6. Topic m.b. own or borrowed. As a rule, there is little individuality. So that it can be interestingly developed. The essence of this type of variation is that the melody theme is surrounded by figuration (detention, passing sounds, etc.). The most important principle of development is a decrease in duration - diminution. This principle usually runs out quickly and to prolong it, they usually use the transfer of the topic from voice to voice. Another very important means is to temporarily change the fret. Thanks to this, a grouping of variations is formed that resembles a tripartite structure. Ornamental variations are usually strict variations: they retain the form of the theme, number of bars, harmonic foundations, general tempo and meter. Example: Beethoven Sonata No. 23 Appassionata: the melody is not the main thing, the main thing is the chords and rhythm. Develops from bottom to top. 2 beginnings, one restraining, the other breaking out. B1 - alternately; B2 – melodiousness, spread out chords, no point. Rhythm. B3 – decrease in duration, the theme is preserved, syncopation B4 – the theme sounds, there are no repetitions, dialogue of registers, serves as a reprise, codas, themes, transition to the finale. The incentive for development is embedded in the theme. Which is implemented in 2c and 3c and summarized in 4c. Sonata A major 1 hour. Mozart 6 variations: non-chord sounds, melismas. Reminiscent of the sonata cycle model 1h – 1-4c, 2h – 5v, 3h. – 6th century; 1-2c – dimenution, 3c – minor, 4 – throw of hands, 5 – adagio, 6 – finale.
8 chosen
Classic literary subjects often inspire young writers, and on this basis they create their novels. 203 years ago, on January 28, 1813, Jane Austen's novel was published "Pride and Prejudice", which girls all over the world have been avidly reading for two centuries. But the writer Helen Fielding not only read this book, but also wrote her own based on it - "Bridget Jones's Diary". Let's see what other writers have fun playing with classic plots.
"Ulysses" VS "Odyssey"Novel by James Joyce "Ulysses"- a recognized classic and one of best works on English language, written in the 20th century. Main character- Dublin Jew Leopold Bloom, who walks around for one day hometown, meets different people, worries about his wife’s infidelity, but does nothing to prevent it. At the same time, it is incredibly difficult to summarize the plot of the book, since it often resembles a stream of consciousness.
Joyce's novel contains many references to "Odyssey" Homer, the analysis of which is devoted great amount scientific works and dissertations. The title of the book, Ulysses, is the Latin form of the name Odysseus. Initially, the episodes of the novel had names corresponding to the ancient Greek epic (for example, the scene in the cemetery - Hades, newspaper editoring - Aeolus). But in his treatment of the epic, Joyce ironically emphasized the inconsistencies between ancient Greek heroes And own characters. Odysseus traveled for many years and visited different countries, and Leopold Bloom walked around the city for one day. Odysseus tried his best to prevent his wife from cheating, but Bloom does nothing about it. Homer's Penelope is a symbol of female fidelity, and Bloom's wife Molly is a symbol of infidelity. Such a strange "Odyssey" of the 20th century.
In Ireland there was even a holiday in honor of this novel - Bloom's Day, which is celebrated on June 16 (it was on this day that Joyce’s hero traveled around Dublin).
"Bridget Jones's Diary" VS "Pride and Prejudice" Helen Fielding never hid the fact that "Pride and Prejudice"- one of her favorite books. And, as the writer admitted, she was inspired to write her novel by the television series of the same name, in which Colin Firth played Mr. Darcy. Later, when it came to the film adaptation "Bridget Jones's Diary" Fielding insisted that the same actor play her Mr. Darcy.
The writer specifically emphasized the similarity between lawyer Mark Darcy and his literary predecessor. Both are rich and cold, which is why they seem arrogant to others. This is how Bridget perceives Mark during their first meeting: "Rich, divorced-from-an-evil-wife Mark - quite tall - stood with his back to the room, carefully examining the contents bookshelves Alconbury: mostly a series of leather-bound books about the Third Reich that Geoffrey subscribes to through Reader's Digest. It seemed quite funny to me - to call myself Mr. Darcy and at the same time stand on the sidelines, looking arrogantly at the other guests. It's like having the surname Heathcliff and therefore spending the whole evening in the garden shouting "Cathy!" and bang your head against a tree."
Bridget's boss Daniel Cleaver, an equally charming scoundrel, became the modern Wickham. The plots of the novels are similar: girls at a “critical” age (if in the 19th century it was 21 years old, in our time it is about 30) dream of finding love and getting married. And both are hindered in this "Pride and Prejudice"– a misconception about the people with whom they communicate. Two centuries have passed, and people have approximately the same problems.
True, the eccentric Bridget is not at all like the sensible Elizabeth Bennet. She has a whole bunch bad habits, there is no willpower, and she constantly makes the wrong decisions. But it was just such a charming loser that readers fell in love with. After all, we are all far from ideal.
"F.M." VS "Crime and Punishment"Boris Akunin also loves "play the classics", interpreting the plots of Russian literature in their own way. He even wrote "The Seagull", continuing Anton Chekhov's play in a detective vein. In Akunin's work, the death of Konstantin Treplev is investigated, and Dr. Dorn takes on the role of investigator.
In the book "F.M." Akunin decided to “play” with the most important work of Russian literature – Dostoevsky’s novel "Crime and Punishment". According to the plot, Nicholas Fandorin (of course, a descendant of Akunin’s beloved hero) is looking for the original version of Dostoevsky’s novel. According to Akunin, in this version the killer was not Raskolnikov, but a completely different person. Thus, the novel contains two detective story: One is from a found manuscript from the 19th century, and the other is set in modern times as the investigation progresses, and there are many similarities between these parallel stories.
Patriarch Nikon. Short biography. Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. Nikon Church Nikon
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