Age periods of human life. Characteristics of age periods Confident overcoming of "critical points"

Listen to the text and do task C1 on a separate sheet. First write the task number, and then the text of the summary.

C1 Listen to the text and write a concise summary.

Please note that you must convey the main content of both each micro-topic and the entire text as a whole.

The volume of presentation is not less than 70 words.

Write your essay in neat, legible handwriting.

Listening text

The expression "white crow" has long been a metaphor, which means a sharp difference between a person and others. Completely white individuals can be seen in a flock of dark crows, rooks or jackdaws. "White crows" are found from time to time among many species of animals. Such individuals are called albinos.

The reason for albinism is that the body does not produce pigments known collectively as melanins. The concentration, ratio and features of the mutual arrangement of granules of different melanins in the skin, wool, feathers, scales, claws and create all the great variety of animal color.

Albinos are fundamentally different from wild animals dressed in snow-white clothes, “received” by nature as a result of natural selection. Snowy owls, white gulls, polar bears are not albinos at all. In the body of these animals, melanins are produced exactly as much as is necessary for normal life.

The unusual appearance of albino animals and the halo of mystery enveloping their origin gave rise to many myths and legends. Recall at least the mighty white bull, in the image of which, according to ancient Greek myths, Zeus reincarnated, or the white elephants of Thailand, which were allowed to be owned only by persons of royal blood, or the white camel who carried off the prophet Mohammed from the enemies, or the White Horse of the Prairie, who commanded, according to the beliefs of the West American Indians , herds of mustangs ... The heroes of all these legends, in addition to supernatural abilities, are endowed with unprecedented strength and endurance. Most likely, they are talking about white animals or partial albinos. Complete albinos, for the most part, are characterized by reduced viability and in nature are ruthlessly rejected by natural selection.

Deprived of camouflage coloration and standing out sharply among their relatives, albino animals attract increased attention of predators, becoming their victims in the first place, but albino predators cannot sneak up on prey unnoticed and get their own food. (257 words)

(According to I. Travina)

- - - Text information for condensed presentation - - -

1 - Among many animal species there are albinos

2 - The reason for albinism is that melanins are not produced in the body, and this is the fundamental difference between albinos

3 - There are many myths and legends about albinos, in which they are endowed with unique properties

4 - A special color determines the specifics of the life of albinos

Part 2

Read the text and complete tasks A1-A7; B1-B9. For each task A1-A7, 4 answers are given, of which only one is correct.

(1) How different according to age are the impressions of what is read, heard and seen!

(2) I remember being taken to the circus as a child. (3) How much joy and pleasure!

(4) In my youth, I also visited it often: I was drawn there by the grace of the movements of riders, the courage of acrobats, the triumph of animal training by the crown of creation - man ...

(5) More mature years have come - I occasionally and only accidentally went to the circus.

(6) Now I don't go there at all. (7) Why?

(8) I remember the last time I was there, very strange thoughts came to me ...

(9) A huge iron cage was brought into the arena on wheels. (10) In it, three young African lions quickly walked back and forth, uttering a dull growl, shaking their manes and sparkling with their eyes. (11) They seemed to be reasoning with themselves, and it seemed to me from the varied tone of their growling that these reasonings were on different topics.

(12) One said:

(13) - Who dares to order me? (14) To whom shall I bow my head, and upon whom shall I not let out my claws? (15) I will break all the locks, I will run through immeasurable spaces and reach my distant homeland - a quiet desert. (16) Where the gazelles, which I eat, drink by the stream, where I also quench my thirst, beautiful young lionesses with silky hair, with eyes burning with green fire, are waiting for me, basking on hot sand. (17) I will let out a joyful cry of love, and she who loves me will answer my call. (18) We will go with her through the vast desert, scorched by the sun, happy, free.

(19) Another made other plans in a sharper tone:

(20) - Who thinks to subdue me? (21) To whom will my proud will bow? (22) Now I will grab the bars and locks with my teeth and gnaw them easier than a child cracks nuts. (23) But I will not withdraw into silence and desert peace, but will flee to the cities where my brethren languish in captivity, where they dare to parade them for fun. (24) I will destroy all cages and free the unfortunate prisoners. (25) There will be dozens, hundreds, thousands of us, and only when there is not a single lion in prison on the entire globe, will I return to my native countries, as befits a victorious king.

(26) The third dreamed of something else:

(27) - Let them not try to enslave me! (28) With one blow of my mighty paw, I will break to smithereens both the tree and the iron of my prison, I will turn everything into chips and dust. (29) I will go to the most remote country, unknown to either people or lions. (30) There I will live alone, contemplating around me only boundless spaces: desert, sea and sky - and, having grown old, I will die in the sight of the setting sun.

(31) So, it seemed to me, thought these three young lions, prisoners in a cage that stood in the arena, when the tamer appeared in the quickly opened door. (32) In her right hand she held a small whip, which even a small dog would hardly have been afraid of.

(33) But as soon as they, these three wild lions, saw her, they stopped roaring and, with their tails between their legs, huddled together in the opposite corner of the cage. (34) Under the swing of the whip, she made them jump over the barriers and into the rings.

(35) He, in love with a wild lioness, licked the hands of the tamer. (36) He who plotted to free all the lions, bit, like a well-trained dog, one of his comrades, who was slow to give a paw, and who dreamed of dying, contemplating the setting sun, trembled all over with a blank shot of a pistol.

(37) The performance ended, and the tamer, leaving the cage, threw a piece of meat to the lions, and they, clutching it in their paws, began to devour, apparently pleased, with an extinct look.

(38) Isn't it the same with people? (39) These three lions are not wonderful dreams of youth: passionate love, thirst for glory, lofty aspirations? (40) But I want to eat ... (41) A tamer is life.

(42) These were my thoughts - and I stopped going to the circus.

(According to N. Heinze)

A1 Which of the following statements answers the question: “Why did the author stop going to the circus?”

1. He has already ceased to enjoy the acrobats, gymnasts, animal trainers.
2. In the circus, he did not watch the performance, but thought about his own.
3. He drew a parallel between the world of trained animals and the world of people, and this made him sad thoughts.
4. He did not like trained animals.

A2 Indicate the meaning in which the word is used in the text "dreams"(Proposition 39).

1. ideals
2. fantasies
3. principles

A3 Indicate the sentence in which the means of expressiveness of speech is a rhetorical question.

1. Who thinks to subdue me? To whom will my proud will bow?
2. Now I don't go there at all. Why?
3. How different according to age are the impressions of what is read, heard and seen!
4. I remember the last time I was there, very strange thoughts came to me...

A4 Specify erroneous judgment.

1. In the word UNCHASTNYH (sentence 24), the consonant sound [t] is unpronounceable.
2. In the word SHOW (sentence 23), the last sound is [h].
3. In the word PRISONS (sentence 28), the softness of the consonant [p '] in writing is indicated by the letter b (soft sign).
4. There are as many sounds in the word BARRIERS (sentence 34) as there are letters.

A5 Enter the word with alternating vowel fundamentally.

1. contemplating
2. tamer
3. open
4. impression

A6 In what word is the spelling of the prefix determined by the fact that after it a dull consonant sound is heard?

1. scared
2. will respond
3. extensive
4. limitless

A7 Which word has the spelling -HH- determined by the fact that the word is formed from a perfective verb?

1. heard
2. seen
3. distant
4. deserted

Complete tasks B1-B9 based on the text you have read. Answers to tasks B1-B9 write down in words or numbers.

IN 1 Replace word PRISONERS from sentence 24 as a stylistically neutral synonym. Write this synonym.

AT 2 Write out from sentence 17-18 a phrase in which words are combined in a way contiguity.

AT 3 You write grammatical basis suggestions 10.

AT 4 Among offers 12-25 find the offer with special circumstance, expressed by adverbial turnover. Write the number of this offer.

AT 5 In the sentence below, from the read text, all commas are numbered. Write down the numbers for the commas introductory word.

So, (1) it seemed to me, (2) these three young lions thought, (3) prisoners in a cage, (4) standing in the arena, (5) when the tamer appeared in the quickly opened door.

AT 6 Specify Quantity grammar basics in sentence 31.

AT 7 In the sentence below, from the read text, all commas are numbered. Write down the numbers indicating the commas between the parts complex subordinate offers.

There will be dozens of us, (1) hundreds, (2) thousands, (3) and only then, (4) when there is not a single lion in prison on the entire globe, (5) I will return to my native countries, (6) as befits a victorious king.

AT 8 Among sentences 1-8, find a complex sentence with sequential subordination of subordinate clauses. Write the number of this offer.

AT 9 Among offers 20-30 find compound sentence with subordinating and coordinating connection. Write the number of this offer.

- - - Answers - - -

A1-3; A2-1; AZ-1; A4-2; A5-3; A6-1; A7-3.

B1-prisoners; B2-let's go together; B3-three lions walked; B4-16; B5-1.2; B6-2; B7-4.5.6; B8-8; B9-25.

Part 3

Using the read text from part 2, complete task C2 on a separate sheet.

C2 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous Russian philologist Grigory Yakovlevich Solganik: "The most amazing and common among visual and expressive means is a metaphor, or a hidden comparison."

Arguing your answer, give 2 (two) examples from the read text.

When giving examples, indicate the numbers of the required sentences or use citations.

You can write a work in a scientific or journalistic style, revealing the topic on linguistic material. You can start the essay with the words of G.Ya. Solganika.

A work written without relying on the text read (not on this text) is not evaluated. If the essay is a paraphrase or a complete rewrite of the source text without any comments, then such work is evaluated by zero points.

The essay must be at least 70 words.

Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.

The meaning of the phrase

Metaphor is a figurative and expressive means based on the use of words in a figurative sense. Metaphorical transfer is carried out on the basis of the similarity of objects and phenomena in form, color, purpose. Metaphor is often found in speech and serves to enhance its expressiveness.

Examples

Find examples of metaphorical transfer in the text and show why the author uses the metaphor, what he wants to convey, what picture to draw.

The physical development of a person is a complex of morphological and functional properties of the body that determine the shape, size, body weight and its structural and mechanical qualities.

Introduction

Signs of physical development are variable. The physical development of a person is the result of the influence of hereditary factors (genotype) and environmental factors, and for a person - the whole complex of social conditions ( phenotype). With age, the value of heredity decreases, the leading role passes to individually acquired features.
The physical development of children and adolescents is associated with growth. Each age period - infancy, childhood, adolescence and youth - is characterized by specific features of the growth of individual parts of the body. In each age period, the child's body has a number of characteristic features that are unique to this age. Between the body of a child and an adult, there are not only quantitative differences (body size, weight), but, above all, qualitative ones.
Currently, there is an acceleration of human physical development. This phenomenon is called acceleration.
In my work, I will try to briefly characterize each of the main stages of individual development of a person.

The main stages of individual human development

When studying human development, its individual and age characteristics in anatomy and other disciplines, they are guided by scientifically based data on age periodization. The scheme of age periodization of human development, taking into account anatomical, physiological, and social factors, was adopted at the VII Conference on Problems of Age Morphology, Physiology, and Biochemistry (1965). It distinguishes twelve age periods (Table 1). Table 1

Individual development, or development in ontogeny, occurs in all periods of life - from conception to death. In human ontogenesis, two periods are distinguished: before birth (intrauterine, prenatal - from the Greek natos - born) and after birth (extrauterine, postnatal).

Prenatal ontogeny

To understand the individual structural features of the human body, it is necessary to get acquainted with the development of the human body in the prenatal period. The fact is that each person has his own individual characteristics of external appearance and internal structure, the presence of which is determined by two factors. This is heredity, traits inherited from parents, as well as the result of the influence of the external environment in which a person grows, develops, learns, works.
In the intrauterine period, from conception to birth, for 280 days (9 calendar months), the embryo (embryo) is located in the mother's body (from the moment of fertilization to birth). During the first 8 weeks, the main processes of the formation of organs and body parts take place. This period is called the embryonic (embryonic), and the body of the future person is the embryo (embryo). From the age of 9 weeks, when the main external human features begin to appear, the body is called a fetus, and the period is fetal (fetal - from the Greek fetus - fetus).
The development of a new organism begins with the process of fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg), which usually occurs in the fallopian tube. Merged sex cells form a qualitatively new unicellular embryo - a zygote that has all the properties of both germ cells. From this moment, the development of a new (daughter) organism begins.
The optimal conditions for the interaction of sperm and egg are usually created within 12 hours after ovulation. The union of the nucleus of the spermatozoon with the nucleus of the ovum leads to the formation in a unicellular organism (zygote) of a diploid set of chromosomes characteristic of humans (46). The sex of the unborn child is determined by the combination of chromosomes in the zygote and depends on the father's sex chromosomes. If the egg is fertilized by a sperm with the sex chromosome X, then two X chromosomes appear in the resulting diploid set of chromosomes, which are characteristic of the female body. When fertilized by a sperm with a Y sex chromosome, a combination of XY sex chromosomes is formed in the zygote, which is characteristic of the male body.
The first week of embryo development is the period of crushing (division) of the zygote into daughter cells (Fig. 1). Immediately after fertilization, during the first 3-4 days, the zygote divides and simultaneously moves along the fallopian tube towards the uterine cavity. As a result of division of the zygote, a multicellular vesicle is formed - a blastula with a cavity inside (from the Greek blastula - sprout). The walls of this vesicle are formed by two types of cells: large and small. From the outer layer of small cells, the walls of the vesicle are formed - the trophoblast. Subsequently, trophoblast cells form the outer layer of the membranes of the embryo. Larger dark cells (blastomeres) form a cluster - an embryoblast (embryonic nodule, embryonic rudiment), which is located medially from the trophoblast. From this accumulation of cells (embryoblast), the embryo and adjacent extraembryonic structures (except for the trophoblast) develop.

Fig.1. A - fertilization: 1 - sperm; 2 - egg; B; C - crushing of the zygote, D - morublastula: 1 - embryoblast; 2 - trophoblast; D - blastocyst: 1-embryoblast; 2 - trophoblast; 3 - amnion cavity; E - blastocyst: 1-embryoblast; 2-amnion cavity; 3 - blastocoel; 4 - embryonic endoderm; 5-amnionitic epithelium - F - I: 1 - ectoderm; 2 - endoderm; 3 - mesoderm.
A small amount of fluid accumulates between the surface layer (trophoblast) and the germinal nodule. By the end of the 1st week of development (6-7th day of pregnancy), the embryo enters the uterus and is introduced (implanted) into its mucous membrane; implantation lasts about 40 hours. The surface cells of the embryo that form the vesicle, the trophoblast (from the Greek trophe - nutrition), secrete an enzyme that loosens the surface layer of the uterine mucosa, which is prepared for the introduction of the embryo into it. The emerging villi (outgrowths) of the trophoblast come into direct contact with the blood vessels of the mother's body. Numerous trophoblast villi increase the surface of its contact with the tissues of the uterine mucosa. The trophoblast turns into a nutrient membrane of the embryo, which is called the villous membrane (chorion). At first, the chorion has villi on all sides, then these villi remain only on the side facing the wall of the uterus. In this place, a new organ develops from the chorion and the uterine mucosa adjacent to it - the placenta (children's place). The placenta is the organ that connects the mother's body with the fetus and provides its nutrition.
The second week of the life of the embryo is the stage when the embryoblast cells are divided into two layers (two plates), from which two vesicles are formed (Fig. 2). From the outer layer of cells adjacent to the trophoblast, an ectoblastic (amniotic) vesicle is formed. An endoblastic (yolk) vesicle is formed from the inner layer of cells (the rudiment of the embryo, the embryoblast). The bookmark ("body") of the embryo is located where the amniotic vesicle is in contact with the yolk sac. During this period, the embryo is a two-layer shield, consisting of two sheets: the outer germinal (ectoderm) and the inner germinal (endoderm).

Fig.2. The position of the embryo and embryonic membranes at different stages of human development: A - 2-3 weeks; B - 4 weeks: 1 - amnion cavity; 2 - the body of the embryo; 3 - yolk sac; 4 - tropholast; B - 6 weeks; D - fetus 4-5 months: 1 - body of the embryo (fetus); 2 - amnion; 3 - yolk sac; 4 - chorion; 5 - umbilical cord.
The ectoderm faces the amniotic sac, and the endoderm is adjacent to the yolk sac. At this stage, the surfaces of the embryo can be determined. The dorsal surface is adjacent to the amniotic vesicle, and the ventral surface to the yolk sac. The trophoblast cavity around the amniotic and vitelline vesicles is loosely filled with strands of cells of the extraembryonic mesenchyme. By the end of the 2nd week, the length of the embryo is only 1.5 mm. During this period, the germinal shield thickens in its posterior (caudal) part. Here, in the future, axial organs (chord, neural tube) begin to develop.
The third week of the life of the embryo is the period of formation of a three-layer shield (embryo). The cells of the outer, ectodermal plate of the germinal shield are displaced towards its posterior end. As a result, a cell ridge (primary streak) is formed, which is elongated in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the embryo. In the head (front) part of the primary strip, cells grow and multiply faster, resulting in a slight elevation - the primary nodule (Hensen's nodule). The location of the primary nodule indicates the cranial (head end) of the body of the embryo.
Rapidly multiplying, the cells of the primary streak and the primary nodule grow to the sides between the ectoderm and endoderm, thus forming the median germ layer - the mesoderm. The cells of the mesoderm located between the sheets of the shield are called the intraembryonic mesoderm, and those that have settled outside it are called the extraembryonic mesoderm.
Part of the mesoderm cells within the primary nodule grows especially actively forward from the head and tail ends of the embryo, penetrates between the outer and inner sheets and forms a cellular strand - the dorsal string (chord). At the end of the 3rd week of development, active cell growth occurs in the anterior part of the outer germ layer - the neural plate is formed. This plate soon bends, forming a longitudinal groove - the neural groove. The edges of the groove thicken, approach and fuse with each other, closing the neural groove into the neural tube. In the future, the entire nervous system develops from the neural tube. The ectoderm closes over the formed neural tube and loses contact with it.
In the same period, a finger-like outgrowth, the alantois, penetrates from the back of the endodermal plate of the germinal shield into the extra-embryonic mesenchyme (the so-called amniotic stalk), which does not perform certain functions in humans. In the course of the allantois, blood umbilical (placental) vessels sprout from the embryo to the chorion villi. A cord containing blood vessels that connects the embryo to the extra-embryonic membranes (placenta) forms the ventral stalk.
Thus, by the end of the 3rd week of development, the human embryo looks like a three-layer plate, or a three-layer shield. In the region of the outer germ layer, the neural tube is visible, and deeper - the dorsal string, i.e. axial organs of the human embryo appear. By the end of the third week of development, the length of the embryo is 2-3 mm.
The fourth week of life - the embryo, which has the form of a three-layer shield, begins to bend in the transverse and longitudinal directions. The embryonic shield becomes convex, and its edges are delimited from the amnion surrounding the embryo by a deep furrow - the trunk fold. The body of the embryo from a flat shield turns into a three-dimensional one, the ectoderm covers the body of the embryo from all sides.
From the ectoderm, the nervous system, the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives, the epithelial lining of the oral cavity, the anal part of the rectum, and the vagina are further formed. The mesoderm gives rise to internal organs (except endoderm derivatives), the cardiovascular system, the organs of the musculoskeletal system (bones, joints, muscles), and the skin itself.
The endoderm, which is inside the body of the human embryo, rolls up into a tube and forms the embryonic rudiment of the future intestine. The narrow opening connecting the embryonic intestine with the yolk sac later turns into the umbilical ring. From the endoderm, the epithelium and all the glands of the digestive system and respiratory tract are formed.
The embryonic (primary) intestine is initially closed in front and behind. In the anterior and posterior ends of the body of the embryo, invaginations of the ectoderm appear - the oral fossa (future oral cavity) and the anal (anal) fossa. Between the cavity of the primary intestine and the oral fossa there is a two-layer (ectoderm and endoderm) anterior (oropharyngeal) plate (membrane). Between the intestine and the anal fossa there is a cloacal (anal) plate (membrane), also two-layered. The anterior (oropharyngeal) membrane ruptures during the 4th week of development. At the 3rd month, the posterior (anal) membrane breaks.
As a result of bending, the body of the embryo is surrounded by the contents of the amnion - amniotic fluid, which acts as a protective environment that protects the embryo from damage, primarily mechanical (concussion).
The yolk sac lags behind in growth and at the 2nd month of intrauterine development looks like a small sac, and then it is completely reduced (disappears). The ventral stalk lengthens, becomes relatively thin and is later called the umbilical cord.
During the 4th week of development of the embryo, the differentiation of its mesoderm, which began on the 3rd week, continues. The dorsal part of the mesoderm, located on the sides of the chord, forms paired thickened protrusions - somites. Somites are segmented, i.e. divided into metameric regions. Therefore, the dorsal part of the mesoderm is called segmented. Segmentation of somites occurs gradually in the direction from front to back. On the 20th day of development, the 3rd pair of somites is formed, by the 30th day there are already 30 of them, and on the 35th day - 43-44 pairs. The ventral part of the mesoderm is not divided into segments. It forms two plates on each side (non-segmented part of the mesoderm). The medial (visceral) plate is adjacent to the endoderm (primary intestine) and is called the splanchnopleura. The lateral (outer) plate is adjacent to the wall of the body of the embryo, to the ectoderm, and is called the somatopleura.
The epithelial cover of the serous membranes (mesothelium), as well as the lamina propria of the serous membranes and the subserous base, develop from the splanchno- and somatopleura. The mesenchyme of the splanchnopleura also goes to the construction of all layers of the digestive tube, except for the epithelium and glands, which are formed from the endoderm. The space between the plates of the non-segmented part of the mesoderm turns into the body cavity of the embryo, which is subdivided into the peritoneal, pleural and pericardial cavities.

Fig.3. Cross section through the body of the embryo (diagram): 1 - neural tube; 2 - chord; 3 - aorta; 4 - sclerotome; 5 - myotome; 6 - dermatome; 7 - primary intestine; 8 - body cavity (as a whole); 9 - somatopleura; 10 - splanchnopleura.
The mesoderm on the border between the somites and the splanchnopleura forms nephrotomes (segmental legs), from which the tubules of the primary kidney, the sex glands, develop. From the dorsal part of the mesoderm - somites - three rudiments are formed. The anteromedial section of the somites (sclerotome) goes to the construction of skeletal tissue, giving rise to cartilage and bones of the axial skeleton - the spine. Lateral to it lies the myotome, from which the skeletal muscles develop. In the posterolateral part of the somite there is a site - the dermatome, from the tissue of which the connective tissue base of the skin is formed - the dermis.
In the head section on each side of the embryo from the ectoderm on the 4th week, the rudiments of the inner ear (first the auditory pits, then the auditory vesicles) and the future lens of the eye are formed. At the same time, the visceral sections of the head are rebuilt, which form the frontal and maxillary processes around the mouth bay. Behind (caudal) of these processes, the contours of the mandibular and sublingual (hyoid) visceral arches are visible.
Elevations are visible on the anterior surface of the torso of the embryo: cardiac, and behind it - hepatic tubercles. The recess between these tubercles indicates the place of formation of the transverse septum - one of the rudiments of the diaphragm. Caudal to the hepatic tubercle is the ventral stalk, which contains large blood vessels and connects the embryo to the placenta (umbilical cord). The length of the embryo by the end of the 4th week is 4-5 mm.

Fifth to eighth weeks

In the period from the 5th to the 8th week of the life of the embryo, the formation of organs (organogenesis) and tissues (histogenesis) continues. This is the time of early development of the heart and lungs, the complication of the structure of the intestinal tube, the formation of visceral arches, the formation of capsules of the sense organs. The neural tube completely closes and expands in the head region (the future brain). At the age of about 31-32 days (5th week), the length of the embryo is 7.5 mm. At the level of the lower cervical and 1st thoracic segments of the body, fin-like rudiments (buds) of the hands appear. By the 40th day, the rudiments of the legs are formed.
At the 6th week (parietal-coccygeal length of the embryo - 12 - 13 mm), the laying of the outer ear is noticeable, from the end of the 6-7th week - the laying of the fingers, and then the toes.
By the end of the 7th week (the length of the embryo is 19-20 mm), eyelids begin to form. Thanks to this, the eyes are outlined more clearly. On the 8th week (the length of the embryo is 28-30 mm), the laying of the organs of the embryo ends. From the 9th week, i.e. from the beginning of the 3rd month, the embryo (parietal-coccygeal length 39-41 mm) takes the form of a person and is called a fetus.

third to ninth months

Starting from three months and throughout the entire fetal period, further growth and development of the resulting organs and body parts occur. At the same time, the differentiation of the external genitalia begins. Nails are laid on the fingers. From the end of the 5th month (length 24.3 cm), eyebrows and eyelashes become noticeable. At the 7th month (length 37.1 cm), the eyelids open, fat begins to accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue. On the 10th month (length 51 cm) the fetus is born.

Critical periods of ontogeny a

In the process of individual development, there are critical periods when the sensitivity of the developing organism to the effects of damaging factors of the external and internal environment is increased. There are several critical periods of development. These most dangerous periods are:
1) the time of development of germ cells - ovogenesis and spermatogenesis;
2) the moment of fusion of germ cells - fertilization;
3) implantation of the embryo (4-8 days of embryogenesis);
4) formation of rudiments of axial organs (brain and spinal cord, spinal column, primary intestine) and formation of the placenta (3-8 weeks of development);
5) the stage of enhanced brain growth (15-20 weeks);
6) formation of the functional systems of the body and differentiation of the urogenital apparatus (20-24th week of the prenatal period);
7) the moment of the birth of the child and the neonatal period - the transition to extrauterine life; metabolic and functional adaptation;
8) the period of early and first childhood (2 years - 7 years), when the formation of relationships between organs, systems and apparatuses of organs ends;
9) adolescence (puberty - in boys from 13 to 16 years, in girls - from 12 to 15 years).
Simultaneously with the rapid growth of the organs of the reproductive system, emotional activity is activated.

Postnatal ontogeny. Neonatal period

Immediately after birth, there is a period called the neonatal period. The basis for this allocation is the fact that at this time the child is fed with colostrum for 8-10 days. Newborns in the initial period of adaptation to the conditions of extrauterine life are divided according to the level of maturity into full-term and premature. Intrauterine development of full-term babies lasts 39-40 weeks, premature babies - 28-38 weeks. When determining maturity, not only these terms are taken into account, but also the mass (weight) of the body at birth.
Newborns with a body weight of at least 2500 g (with a body length of at least 45 cm) are considered full-term, and newborns with a body weight of less than 2500 g are considered premature. In addition to weight and length, other dimensions are taken into account, for example, chest girth in relation to body length and head circumference in relation to chest circumference. It is believed that the girth of the chest at the level of the nipples should be more than 0.5 body length by 9-10 cm, and the girth of the head - more than the girth of the chest by no more than 1-2 cm.

Breast period

The next period - chest - lasts up to a year. The beginning of this period is associated with the transition to feeding "mature" milk. During the breast period, the greatest intensity of growth is observed, in comparison with all other periods of extrauterine life. Body length increases from birth to a year by 1.5 times, and body weight triples. From 6 months milk teeth begin to erupt. In infancy, uneven body growth is pronounced. In the first half of the year, babies grow faster than in the second. In each month of the first year of life, new indicators of development appear. In the first month, the child begins to smile in response to adults addressing him, at 4 months. persistently tries to stand on legs (with support), at 6 months. tries to crawl on all fours, at 8 - makes attempts to walk, by the year the child usually walks.

early childhood period

The period of early childhood lasts from 1 year to 4 years. At the end of the second year of life, teething ends. After 2 years, the absolute and relative values ​​of the annual increase in body size rapidly decrease.

First childhood period

From the age of 4, the period of the first childhood begins, which ends at the age of 7. Starting from the age of 6, the first permanent teeth appear: the first molar (large molar) and the medial incisor on the lower jaw.
The age from 1 year to 7 years is also called the period of neutral childhood, since boys and girls almost do not differ from each other in size and body shape.

second childhood period

The period of second childhood lasts for boys from 8 to 12 years, for girls - from 8 to 11 years. During this period, sex differences in the size and shape of the body are revealed, and an increased growth of the body in length begins. Growth rates in girls are higher than in boys, since puberty in girls begins on average two years earlier. Increased secretion of sex hormones (especially in girls) causes the development of secondary sexual characteristics. The sequence of appearance of secondary sexual characteristics is fairly constant. In girls, the mammary glands first form, then pubic hair appears, then in the armpits. The uterus and vagina develop simultaneously with the formation of the mammary glands. To a much lesser extent, the process of puberty is expressed in boys. Only towards the end of this period do they begin to accelerate the growth of the testicles, scrotum, and then the penis.

Teenage years

The next period - adolescence - is also called puberty, or puberty. It continues in boys from 13 to 16 years old, in girls - from 12 to 15 years old. At this time, there is a further increase in growth rates - the puberty jump, which applies to all body sizes. The greatest increase in body length in girls occurs between 11 and 12 years, in body weight - between 12 and 13 years. In boys, an increase in length is observed between 13 and 14 years, and an increase in body weight between 14 and 15 years. The growth rate of body length is especially high in boys, as a result of which at the age of 13.5-14 they overtake girls in body length. Due to the increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary system, secondary sexual characteristics are formed. In girls, the development of the mammary glands continues, there is growth of hair on the pubis and in the armpits. The most clear indicator of puberty of the female body is the first menstruation.
In adolescence, there is an intensive puberty of boys. By the age of 13, their voice changes (mutates) and pubic hair appears, and at 14, hair appears in the armpits. At the age of 14-15, boys have their first wet dreams (involuntary eruptions of sperm).
In boys, compared with girls, the pubertal period is longer and the pubertal growth spurt is more pronounced.

adolescence

Adolescence lasts for boys from 18 to 21 years old, and for girls - from 17 to 20 years old. During this period, the growth process and the formation of the body basically end, and all the main dimensional features of the body reach the definitive (final) value.
In adolescence, the formation of the reproductive system and the maturation of the reproductive function are completed. The ovulatory cycles in a woman, the rhythm of testosterone secretion and the production of mature sperm in a man are finally established.

Mature, elderly, senile age

In adulthood, the shape and structure of the body change little. Between 30 and 50 years, body length remains constant, and then begins to decrease. In the elderly and senile age, gradual involutive changes in the body occur.

Individual differences in the process of growth and development

Individual differences in the process of growth and development can vary widely. The existence of individual fluctuations in the processes of growth and development served as the basis for the introduction of such a concept as biological age, or developmental age (as opposed to passport age).
The main criteria for biological age are:
1) skeletal maturity - (the order and timing of ossification of the skeleton);
2) dental maturity - (terms of eruption of milk and permanent teeth);
3) the degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics. For each of these biological age criteria - "external" (skin), "dental" and "bone" - rating scales and normative tables have been developed to determine the chronological (passport) age by morphological features.

Factors affecting individual development

Factors affecting individual development (ontogenesis) are divided into hereditary and environmental (influence of the external environment).
The degree of hereditary (genetic) influence is not the same at different stages of growth and development. The impact of hereditary factors on the total body size increases from the period of the newborn (tm) to the second childhood, with a subsequent weakening by the age of 12-15.
The influence of environmental factors on the processes of morphofunctional maturation of the body is clearly seen in the example of the timing of menarche (menstruation). Studies of growth processes in children and adolescents in various geographical areas have shown that climatic factors have almost no effect on growth and development, if living conditions are not extreme. Adaptation to extreme conditions causes such a profound restructuring of the functioning of the whole organism that it cannot but affect the growth processes.

Dimensions and proportions, body weight

Among the body sizes, total (from French total - whole) and partial (from Latin pars - part) are distinguished. Total (general) body dimensions are the main indicators of human physical development. These include body length and weight, as well as chest circumference. Partial (partial) dimensions of the body are terms of the total size and characterize the size of individual parts of the body.
Body sizes are determined during anthropometric surveys of various contingents of the population.
Most anthropometric indicators have significant individual fluctuations. Table 2 shows some average anthropometric indicators in postnatal ontogeny.
The proportions of the body depend on the age and gender of the person (Fig. 4). Body length and its age-related changes, as a rule, are individual. So, for example, differences in the body length of newborns during normal pregnancy are in the range of 49-54 cm. The largest increase in the body length of children is observed in the first year of life and averages 23.5 cm. In the period from 1 to 10 years, this indicator gradually decreases by an average of 10.5 - 5 cm per year. From the age of 9, sex differences in growth rate begin to appear. Body weight from the first days of life and up to about 25 years in most people gradually increases, and then remains unchanged.

Fig. 4 Changes in the proportions of body parts in the process of human growth.
KM - the middle line. The numbers on the right show the ratio of body parts in children and adults, the numbers below show the age.
table 2
Length, mass and body surface area in postiatal orthogenesis



Table 2
After the age of 60, body weight usually begins to gradually decrease, mainly as a result of atrophic changes in tissues and a decrease in their water content. The total body weight consists of a number of components: the mass of the skeleton, muscles, fatty tissue, internal organs and skin. In men, the average body weight is 52-75 kg, in women - 47-70 kg.
In the elderly and senile age, characteristic changes are observed not only in the size and weight of the body, but also in its structure; these changes are studied by the special science of gerontology (gerontos - old man). It should be emphasized that an active lifestyle, regular physical education slows down the aging process.

Acceleration

It should be noted that over the past 100-150 years there has been a noticeable acceleration in the somatic development and physiological maturation of children and adolescents - acceleration (from Latin acceleratio - acceleration). Another term for the same trend is "epochal shift". Acceleration is characterized by a complex set of interrelated morphological, physiological, and mental phenomena. To date, morphological indicators of acceleration have been determined.
Thus, the length of the body of children at birth over the past 100-150 years has increased by an average of 0.5-1 cm, and the weight - by 100-300 g. During this time, the mass of the placenta in the mother has also increased. There is also an earlier alignment of the ratios of chest and head girths (between the 2nd and 3rd month of life). Modern one-year-old children are 5 cm longer and 1.5-2 kg heavier than their peers in the 19th century.
The body length of preschool children over the past 100 years has increased by 10-12 cm, and in schoolchildren - by 10-15 cm.
In addition to an increase in body length and weight, acceleration is characterized by an increase in the size of individual parts of the body (segments of limbs, thickness of skin-fat folds, etc.). Thus, the increase in chest girth in relation to the increase in body length was small. The onset of puberty in modern adolescents occurs about two years earlier. The acceleration of development also affected motor functions. Modern teenagers run faster, jump further from a place, pull themselves up on the crossbar (horizontal bar) more times.
Epochal shift (acceleration) affects all stages of human life, from birth to death. For example, the length of the body of adults also increases, but to a lesser extent than in children and adolescents. So, at the age of 20-25 years, the body length of men increased by an average of 8 cm.
Acceleration covers the entire body, affecting the size of the body, the growth of organs and bones, the maturation of the sex glands and the skeleton. In men, changes in the process of acceleration are more pronounced than in women.
Men and women are distinguished by sexual characteristics. These are primary signs (genital organs) and secondary (for example, the development of pubic hair, the development of the mammary glands, a change in voice, etc.), as well as body features, proportions of body parts.
The proportions of the human body are calculated as a percentage according to the measurement of the longitudinal and transverse dimensions between the boundary points set on various protrusions of the skeleton.
The harmony of body proportions is one of the criteria for assessing the state of human health. With disproportion in the structure of the body, one can think of a violation of growth processes and the causes that caused it (endocrine, chromosomal, etc.). Based on the calculation of body proportions in anatomy, three main types of human physique are distinguished: mesomorphic, brachymorphic, dolichomorphic. The mesomorphic body type (normosthenics) includes people whose anatomical features approach the average parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc.). In people of the brachymorphic body type (hypersthenics), transverse dimensions predominate, muscles are well developed, they are not very tall. The heart is located transversely due to the high-standing diaphragm. In hypersthenics, the lungs are shorter and wider, the loops of the small intestine are located mainly horizontally. Persons of dolichomorphic body type (asthenics) are characterized by a predominance of longitudinal dimensions, have relatively longer limbs, poorly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, and narrow bones. Their diaphragm is lower, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is located almost vertically. Table 3 shows the relative sizes of body parts in people of different body types.
Table 3

Conclusion

What can be the conclusion of the above?
Human growth is uneven. Each part of the body, each organ develops according to its own program. If we compare the growth and development of each of them with a long-distance runner, it is not difficult to find that during this many years of "running" the leader of the competition is constantly changing. In the first month of embryonic development, the head is in the lead. In a two-month-old fetus, the head is larger than the body. This is understandable: the brain is located in the head, and it is the most important organ that coordinates and organizes the complex work of organs and systems. The development of the heart, blood vessels and liver also begins early.
In a newborn baby, the head reaches half of its final size. Up to 5-7 years of age, there is a rapid increase in body weight and length. At the same time, the arms, legs and torso grow alternately: first, the arms, then the legs, then the torso. The size of the head during this period increases slowly.
At primary school age from 7 to 10 years, growth is slower. If earlier arms and legs grew more quickly, now the torso becomes the leader. It grows evenly, so that the proportions of the body are not violated.
In adolescence, the hands grow so intensively that the body does not have time to adapt to their new size, hence some clumsiness and sweeping movements. After that, the legs begin to grow. Only when they reach their final size does the torso join in the growth. First, it grows in height, and only then begins to grow in width. During this period, the physique of a person is finally formed.
If we compare the parts of the body of a newborn and an adult, it turns out that the size of the head has grown only twice, the torso and arms have become three times larger, while the length of the legs has increased five times.
An important indicator of the development of the body is the appearance of menstruation in girls and wet dreams in boys, it indicates the onset of biological maturity.
Along with the growth of the body is its development. The growth and development of a person in different people occur at different times, so anatomists, doctors, physiologists distinguish between calendar age and biological age. Calendar age is calculated from the date of birth, biological age reflects the degree of physical development of the subject. The last one is different for each person. It may happen that people who are at the same biological age may differ by 2-3 years on the calendar, and this is completely normal. Girls tend to develop faster.

Literature

1. Medical scientific and educational journal No. 28 [October 2005]. Section - Lectures. Title of the work - PERIODS OF CHILDHOOD. Author - P.D. Vaganov
2. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works in 6 volumes. Volume 4
3. Vygotsky L.S. article "Problems of age periodization of child development"
4. Obukhova L.F. textbook "Children's (age) psychology". Fundamental and clinical physiology / Ed.A.G. Kamkin and A.A. Kamensky. - M.: "Academy", 2004.
5. Schmidt R., Tews G. Human Physiology: Per. from English. - M.: Mir, 1996.
6. Dragomilov A.G., Mash R.D. Biology: Man. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2004.
7. Sapin. M.R., Bryksina Z.G. Anatomy and physiology of children and adolescents: Proc. allowance for students. ped. universities. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002.
8. Chusov Yu.N. Human Physiology: Proc. allowance for ped. Schools (special No. 1910). - M.: Enlightenment, 1981.
9. Encyclopedia "Round the World"
10. "Rusmedservice"
11. Encyclopedia "Wikipedia"

The concept of "age" can be considered from different aspects: from the point of view of the chronology of events, the biological processes of the body, social formation and psychological development.

Age covers the entire life path. Its countdown starts from birth and ends with physiological death. Age shows from birth to a specific event in a person's life.

Birth, growing up, development, old age - all the lives of a person, of which the entire earthly path consists. Having been born, a person began his first stage, and then, over time, he will go through all of them sequentially.

Classification of age periods in terms of biology

There is no single classification; at different times it was compiled in a different way. The delimitation of periods is associated with a certain age, when significant changes occur in the human body.

A person's life is the periods between key "points".

Passport, or chronological age may not coincide with the biological. It is by the latter that one can judge how he will do his job, what loads his body can withstand. Biological age can both lag behind the passport, and ahead of it.

Consider the classification of life periods, which is based on the concept of age based on physiological changes in the body:

The views of scientists on the age periods of human life

Depending on the era and country, scientists and philosophers have proposed various criteria for grading the main stages of life.

For example:

• Chinese scientists divided human life into 7 phases. “Desirable”, for example, was the age from 60 to 70 years. This is the period of development of spirituality and human wisdom.
• The ancient Greek scientist Pythagoras identified the stages of human life with the seasons. Each lasted 20 years.
• The ideas of Hippocrates became fundamental for the further definition of periods of life. He singled out 10, each 7 years long, starting from birth.

Periods of life according to Pythagoras

The ancient philosopher Pythagoras, considering the stages of human existence, identified them with the seasons. He singled out four of them:

• Spring is the beginning and development of life, from birth to 20 years.
• Summer - youth, from 20 to 40 years.
• Autumn - heyday, from 40 to 60 years.
• Winter - fading, from 60 to 80 years.

Periods according to Pythagoras had a duration of exactly 20 years. Pythagoras believed that everything on Earth was measured by numbers, which he treated not only as mathematical symbols, but also endowed them with some kind of magical meaning. Numbers also allowed him to determine the characteristics of the cosmic order.

Pythagoras also applied the concept of “four” to age periods, because he compared them with eternal, unchanging natural phenomena, for example, the elements.

The periods of a person's life (according to Pythagoras) and their advantages are based on the doctrine of the idea of ​​eternal return. Life is eternal, like the successive seasons, and man is a part of nature, lives and develops according to its laws.

The concept of "seasons" according to Pythagoras

Identifying the age intervals of human life with the seasons, Pythagoras focused on the fact that:

• Spring is the time of the beginning, the birth of life. The child develops, absorbing new knowledge with pleasure. He is interested in everything around him, but everything is still happening in the form of a game. The child is flourishing.
• Summer is the growing season. A person blossoms, he is attracted by everything new, still unknown. Continuing to flourish, a person does not lose his childish fun.
• Autumn - a person has become an adult, balanced, former gaiety has given way to confidence and slowness.
• Winter is a period of reflection and summing up. Man has gone most of the way and is now considering the results of his life.

The main periods of the earthly path of people

Considering the existence of an individual, we can distinguish the main periods of human life:

• youth;
• mature age;
• old age.

At each stage, a person acquires something new, reconsiders his values, changes his social status in society.

The basis of existence is the periods of human life. The features of each of them are associated with growing up, changes in the environment, the state of mind.

Features of the main stages of the existence of a person

The periods of a person's life have their own characteristics: each stage complements the previous one, brings with it something new, something that has not yet been in life.

Maximalism is inherent in youth: there is a dawn of mental, creative abilities, the main physiological processes of growing up are completed, appearance and well-being are improving. At this age, a system is established, time begins to be valued, self-control increases, and others are reassessed. A person determines the direction of his life.

Having reached the threshold of maturity, a person has already reached certain heights. In the professional field, he occupies a stable position. This period coincides with the strengthening and maximum development of social status, decisions are made deliberately, a person does not avoid responsibility, appreciates today, can forgive himself and others for mistakes, realistically evaluates himself and others. This is the age of achievements, conquering peaks and getting the maximum opportunities for your development.

Old age is more about loss than gain. A person ends his labor activity, his social environment changes, inevitable physiological changes appear. However, a person can still engage in self-development, in most cases this happens more on a spiritual level, on the development of the inner world.

Critical points

The most important periods of human life are associated with changes in the body. They can also be called critical: the hormonal background changes, which causes changes in mood, irritability, nervousness appear.

Psychologist E. Erickson identifies 8 crisis periods in a person's life:

• Teenage years.
• The entry of a person into adulthood is the thirtieth birthday.
• The transition to the fourth decade.
• Fortieth anniversary.
• Middle of life - 45 years.
• fiftieth anniversary.
• Fifty-fifth anniversary.
• Fifty-sixth anniversary.

Confidently overcome "critical points"

Overcoming each of the presented periods, a person moves to a new stage of development, while overcoming the difficulties that have arisen on his way, and strives to conquer new heights of his life.

The child breaks away from his parents and tries to find his own direction in life.

In the third decade, a person reconsiders his principles, changes his views on the environment.

Approaching the fourth ten, people try to gain a foothold in life, climb the career ladder, begin to think more rationally.

In the middle of life, a person begins to wonder if he lives correctly. There is a desire to do something that will leave a memory of him. There is disappointment and fear for their lives.

At the age of 50, a slowdown in physiological processes affects health, age-related changes occur. However, a person has already set his life priorities correctly, his nervous system works stably.

At 55, wisdom appears, a person enjoys life.

At 56, a person thinks more about the spiritual side of his life, develops his inner world.

Doctors say that if you are prepared and aware of the critical periods of life, then they will be overcome calmly and painlessly.

Conclusion

A person decides for himself by what criteria he divides his life periods, and what he puts into the concept of "age". It could be:

• Purely external attractiveness, which a person seeks to prolong by all available means. And he considers himself young, as long as appearance allows it.
• The division of life into "youth" and "the end of youth." The first period lasts as long as there is an opportunity to live without obligations, problems, responsibility, the second - when problems, life difficulties appear.
• Physiological changes in the body. A person clearly follows the changes and identifies his age with them.
• The concept of age is associated with the state of the soul and consciousness. A person measures his age by the state of his soul and inner freedom.

As long as a person's life is filled with meaning, the desire to learn something new, and all this is organically combined with the wisdom and spiritual wealth of the inner world, a person will be forever young, despite the weakening of the physical capabilities of his body.

How different according to age are the impressions of what is read, heard and seen!
I remember being taken to the circus as a child.
What joy, what pleasure!
In my youth, I also visited it and visited it often - I was drawn there by the grace of the movements of riders, the courage of acrobats, the triumph of animal training by the crown of creation - man ...
More mature years came - I occasionally and only accidentally went to the circus.
Now I don't go there at all. Why?
I remember the last time I was there, I was visited by very strange thoughts ...
The turn came - I vividly recall it - to the last number of the program - the taming of the lions.
A huge iron cage was brought to the arena on wheels. In it, three young African lions quickly walked back and forth, uttering a dull growl, shaking their manes and sparkling with their eyes.
They seemed to be reasoning with themselves, and it seemed to me, from the varied tone of their growling, that these reasonings were different topics.
One, I understood them, said:
Who dares to order me? To whom shall I bow my head, and upon whom shall I not let out my claws? I'm leaving, only they saw me! I will break all the locks, I will run through immeasurable spaces and reach my distant homeland - a quiet desert. Where the gazelles, which I will feast on, drink by the stream, where I will quench my thirst, beautiful young lionesses with silky hair, with eyes burning with green fire, are waiting for me, basking on the hot sand. I will let out a joyful cry of love, and the one who loves me will answer my call. We will go with her through the vast desert, scorched by the sun, happy, free. Surrendering to the first delights of love, licking our lips, bloodied with happy prey, we will fall asleep sweetly, and only the moon, frightened and enchanted, will contemplate this matrimonial dream of the royal couple of the desert from a cloudless sky ...
Another, in a sharper tone, made other plans:
"Who's thinking of subjugating me?" To whom will my proud will bow? Now I will grab the bars and locks with my teeth and crack them easier than a child cracks nuts. But I will not retire to the peace and quiet of the desert, I will flee to the cities where my brethren languish in captivity, where they dare to put them on display for fun. I will destroy all cages and free the unfortunate prisoners. There will be tens, hundreds, thousands of us, and only when there is not a single lion in prison on the entire globe, only then will I return to my native countries, liberated and liberator, with joy in my heart, as befits a victorious king returning to his fatherland at the head of a liberated people.
The third dreamed of something else:
“Let them not try to enslave me!” This is a waste of time! No look will make me look down! With one stroke of my mighty paw, I will shatter both the tree and the iron of my prison, turning everything into chips and dust. But I do not yearn for freedom for the pleasures of love and not for the achievement of the glory of the liberator of enslaved brethren. No, absolutely not. I will go to the most remote, unknown to either people or lions. There I will live alone, contemplating around me only boundless spaces: desert, sea and sky. I will only exchange views with the stars. Finally, having grown old in the midst of this charming infinity, I will die, bowing my head on my paws, in view of the setting sun.
Thus, it seemed to me, these three young lions, imprisoned in a cage that stood in the arena, were thinking aloud when the tamer appeared through the quickly opened door.
She did not stand out either in strength or beauty, thin, pale, exhausted, dressed in tights with brilliant embroidery.
In her right hand she held a small whip, which even a small dog would hardly have been afraid of.
But as soon as they saw her, these three wild lions stopped roaring and, with their tails between their legs, huddled together in the opposite corner of the cage. For a moment there was an evil glint in their eyes, but she slammed the whip and they subsided. Under the swing of the same scourge, she made them jump over barriers and into rings.
The one who, in love with a wild lioness, longed to lick her bloody lips, licked the hands of the tamer. Plotting to free all three lions, he bit, like a well-trained dog, one of his comrades, who was slow to give a paw, and who dreamed of dying, contemplating the setting sun, trembled all over with a blank shot of a pistol.
Finally the show ended. The tamer, leaving the cage, threw a piece of meat to the lions. They, clutching it in their paws, began to devour, apparently pleased, with an extinct look.
Isn't it the same with people?
- These three lions - are not wonderful dreams of youth: passionate love, thirst for glory, lofty aspirations?
But… you have to eat!
The tamer is life.
That's what my thoughts were - and I stopped going to the circus.
Please help me to identify the problem of this text))