A novel of education in Soviet literature. Youth and parenting novels

29.08.2019

England in the 18th century became the birthplace of the educational novel.

The novel is a genre that arose during the transition from the Renaissance to the New Time; this young genre was ignored by classicist poetics because it had no precedent in ancient literature. The novel is aimed at an artistic study of modern reality, and English literature turned out to be especially fertile ground for a qualitative leap in the development of the genre, which became the educational novel.

Hero:

In educational literature, a significant democratization of the hero takes place, which corresponds to the general direction of educational thought. The hero of a literary work in the 18th century ceases to be a “hero” in the sense of possessing exceptional properties and ceases to occupy the highest levels in the social hierarchy. He remains a “hero” only in another sense of the word - the central character of the work. With such a hero the reader can identify himself, put himself in his place; this hero is in no way higher than an ordinary, average person. But at first this recognizable hero, in order to attract the interest of the reader, had to act in an unfamiliar environment to the reader, in circumstances that awaken the reader's imagination.

Therefore, with this “ordinary” hero in the literature of the 18th century, extraordinary adventures still occur, out of the ordinary events, because for the reader of the 18th century they justified the story of an ordinary person, they were the amusement of a literary work. The hero's adventures can unfold in different spaces, close or far from his home, in familiar social conditions or in a non-European society, or even outside of society in general. But the literature of the 18th century invariably sharpens and poses, shows in close-up the problems of the state and social structure, the place of the individual in society and the influence of society on the individual.

In English literature, the Enlightenment goes through several stages:

In the 20-30s of the 18th century, prose was dominant in literature; the novel of adventures and travel became popular.

During this time, Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift created their famous works. Daniel Defoe devoted his whole life to trade and journalism, traveled a lot, knew the sea well, he published his first novel in 1719. It was the novel "Robinson Crusoe". The impetus for the creation of the novel was a note once read by Defoe in a magazine about a Scottish sailor who was landed on a desert island and in four years became so wild that he lost his human skills. Defoe rethought this idea, his novel became a hymn to the work of a man from the bottom. Daniel Defoe became the creator of the New Time novel genre as an epic of the private life of an individual. Jonathan Swift was Dafoe's contemporary and literary opponent. Swift wrote his novel "Gulliver's Travel" as a parody of "Robinson Crusoe", fundamentally not taking Defoe's social optimism.

In the 40-60s of the 18th century, the genre of the social and everyday moralizing novel of education flourished in literature.

The literary figures of this period are Henry Fielding and Samuel Richardson. Fielding's most famous novel is The Story of Tom Jones, the Foundling. It shows the formation of a hero who makes a lot of mistakes in life, but still makes a choice in favor of good. Fielding conceived his novel as a controversy to Richardson's novel Clarissa, or the Story of a Young Lady, in which the main character Clarissa is seduced by Sir Robert Lovelace, whose surname later became a household name.

Human image: In accordance with the requirements of the new century, the enlighteners replace the idea of man with a view of him as a natural and, above all, bodily being, and declare his feelings and mind to be the products of bodily organization.

From this statement comes the idea of equality of people and the denial of class prejudices.

All desires and needs of a person are reasonable, as long as they are due to his natural properties; like human life, the life of all natural beings, as well as the existence of inorganic objects, is justified by reference to natural laws, in other words, rational existence must correspond to the natural essence of an object or phenomenon.

The educators were first of all convinced that by rationally changing, improving social forms of life, it is possible to change every person for the better. On the other hand, a person with reason is capable of moral improvement and the education and upbringing of each person will improve society as a whole. So, in the Enlightenment, the idea of educating a person comes to the fore. Belief in upbringing was strengthened by the authority of the English thinker Locke: the philosopher argued that a person is born with a "blank sheet" on which any moral, social "writing" can be inscribed, it is only important to be guided by reason. “Age of Reason” is the common name for the 18th century.

The man of the Enlightenment, whatever he did in life, was also a philosopher in the broad sense of the word: he persistently and constantly strived for reflection, relied in his judgments not on authority or faith, but on his own critical judgment. No wonder the 18th century. is also called the century of criticism. Critical sentiments reinforce the secular character of literature, its interest in the pressing problems of modern society, and not in the sublime, mystical, ideal issues.

The enlighteners believed that ignorance, prejudice and superstition generated by feudal orders and the spiritual dictatorship of the church impeded public welfare, and proclaimed enlightenment as the most important means of eliminating the discrepancy between the existing social order and the requirements of reason and human nature. At the same time, they understood enlightenment not only as the dissemination of knowledge and education, but above all, as the Russian literary critic S.V. Turaev justly remarked, as "civic education, the promotion of new ideas, the destruction of the old worldview and the creation of a new one."

Reason was declared the highest criterion for assessing the surrounding world, the most powerful instrument of its transformation. The enlighteners believed that their activities contributed to the death of an "unreasonable" society and the establishment of the kingdom of reason, but in the conditions of the underdevelopment of bourgeois relations of that time, the illusions of the enlighteners were natural and, having become the basis of their optimistic belief in the progress of mankind, stimulated their critical assessment of the existing order.

The history of Russian literature of the 18th century Lebedeva O.B.

Genre models of a travel novel and a romance-education of feelings in the works of F.A.Emin

Fyodor Alexandrovich Emin (1735-1770) is considered the first original Russian novelist of modern times. This figure in Russian literature is completely extraordinary, and one might even say symbolic: in the sense that the novel genre was laid down in literature by a man whose biography itself is completely romantic and incredible. There are still many ambiguities in this biography. Emin was the grandson of a Pole in Austrian military service and married to a Bosnian Muslim; Emin's mother was a "slave of the Christian law", whom his father married in Constantinople. The first years of the future novelist's life were spent in Turkey and Greece, where his father was the governor, and Emin received his education in Venice. Subsequently, after being exiled to one of the islands of the Greek archipelago, Emin's father fled to Algeria, where his son joined him - both took part in the Algerian-Tunisian war of 1756. After his father's death, Emin was captured by Moroccan corsairs; from captivity in Morocco, Emin fled through Portugal to London, where he appeared at the Russian embassy, converted to Orthodoxy and very quickly mastered the Russian language. In 1761 Emin appeared in St. Petersburg and began teaching numerous foreign languages known to him (according to various sources, he knew them from 5 to 12), and from 1763 he acted as a novelist, translator and publisher of the satirical magazine "Hell's Mail".

Emin was published for only six years - from 1763 to 1769, but in this short period of time he published about 25 books, including 7 novels, at least 4 of which are original; in 1769 he single-handedly published the magazine "Adskaya Pochta", where he was the only author and, in addition, actively participated in his publications in other magazines of this year. In order to lay the foundations of the novel genre in Russian literature, Emin was simply an ideal figure: his stormy youth and universal acquaintance with many European and Asian countries gave him the necessary experience that allowed him to step over a certain psychological barrier that exists in the aesthetic consciousness of Russian prose writers. translators because of the extreme dissimilarity of the picture of the world that grew up in the narrative of the European love-adventure novel, with the national Russian public and private life. Emin, on the other hand, felt like a fish in water in a European adventure novel - his own life fit well into the genre framework of an adventure novel, and he himself was quite suitable for its heroes. He made himself and his life (or the legend about it, created by himself - this is still unclear) the subject of the narration in one of his first novels "Fickle Fortune, or the Adventure of Miramond" (1763), informing in the preface that in the image one of the heroes of the novel, Feridat, he portrayed himself and his life.

The very word "adventure" in the title of the novel testifies to the fact that its genre model is based on the traditional adventurous scheme of a travel novel. However, Emin complicated it with the numerous realities of other narrative models: “The hero's sailing on the sea is interrupted by shipwrecks or pirate attacks, robbers attack him on land, he turns out to be either sold into slavery, then ascended to the throne, then thrown into the forest jungle, reflects on the meaning of life , reads some wise book about how to deal with subjects, with ministers, with friends <…>. On this basis, elements of the novel about the education of feelings are superimposed. <…> The hero hides from civilization in a kind of desert and there he indulges in moral self-improvement. Numerous author's digressions (especially at the beginning of the novel) are designed to educate the Russian reader in terms of economic, historical and ethno-geographical: the author leads the reader (following Miramond and Feridat) to the Maltese, Kabila, Marabut, Portuguese, to Egypt - to the Mamelukes, in France and Poland. Some digressions grow into real sketches of mores <…>. In places, this variegated structure is deeply wedged by inserted novellas, often of a fantastic nature, reminiscent of the fabulous incidents of The Thousand and One Nights. All this is fastened by the ties of a love conflict, but it comes into its own only after the author has given more than a hundred pages to a kind of prehistory of it. She can probably be seen as an early portent. soul stories, which will later take an important place in the characterology of developed sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. "

Thus, we can say that in his first novel, Emin created a kind of encyclopedia of novel forms and genre varieties of the novel. A travel novel combining documentary-essay and fictional adventurous beginnings, a love story, a romance-education of feelings, a magic-fantasy novel, a psychological novel, an educational novel - all these genre tendencies of novel narration are presented in The Adventures of Miramond. And if we take into account the fact that "The Adventure of Miramond" is carried out in the geographical space of almost the entire world - from real European and Asian countries to a fictional desert, as well as the fact that the name "Miramond" itself contains twice repeated - in Russian and in French the concept of "the world" (the whole world, the universe, secular life) - then the concept of the novel genre, as it is outlined in the first Russian original novel, acquires a distinct overtones of epic universality, all-encompassing being, recreated through fate, character and biography of a peculiar " citizen of the world ".

It is easy to see that in his first novel, Emin picks up the already familiar traditions of Russian original and translated literary prose of the 18th century. - from unauthorized histories about the "citizen of Russian Europe" to the wandering of the conditional hero Tirsis across the fictional island of Love. Just as a Russian sailor spiritually and intellectually grows from an artful and poor nobleman to an interlocutor of European monarchs, as Thyrsis becomes a hero, citizen and patriot as a result of mastering the culture of love relationships and fostering feelings in the "academy of love", the hero of Emina Miramond is also presented in the process spiritual growth: “it is constantly changing; he becomes more mature, wiser, life experience allows him to understand what was previously inaccessible to him. " This is, perhaps, the main tendency outlined in The Adventures of Miramond: the tendency of a travel novel to develop into a novel - a spiritual path, a tendency to psychologize the novel, which was fully embodied in Emin's best novel, Letters of Ernest and Doravra (1766).

The genre form that Emin gave to his last novel (and between "Miramond" and "Letters of Ernest and Doravra" there is a time interval of only three years) - an epistolary novel - testifies, firstly, to the swiftness of the evolution of the Russian novel, and secondly, about the swiftness with which the newly emerging Russian novels were gaining contemporary Western European aesthetic experience and rising to the Western European level of development of the novel genre in terms of the evolution of genre forms of fiction. Epistolary novel in the 1760s was a burning aesthetic innovation not only in Russia, but also in European literature. In 1761, the novel by J.-J. Rousseau's "Julia or the New Eloise", which marked a new stage in European romance and its class conflict, acutely relevant in pre-revolutionary France, and its epistolary form, which opened up new possibilities for the psychologization of the novel's narration, since it gave the heroes all the traditional author's ways of revealing their inner world ...

Emin, who gravitated towards the psychologization of the novel's narrative already in The Adventures of Miramond, certainly felt the possibilities that the epistolary form gives for revealing the inner world of the heroes, and, having adopted the epistolary form of Rousseau's novel, subordinated all other components to the task of depicting the life of the “sensitive heart” novel narration. Having retained the general outlines of the love conflict - the nobility and wealth of Doravra prevent her marriage with the poor innocent Ernest, he nevertheless softened the acuteness of Rousseau's love conflict, where the main obstacle to the love of Julia and Saint-Pré was the difference in their class status - the aristocrat Julia and the commoner Saint-Pré could not be happy only for this reason, while Ernest and Doravra both belong to the nobility, and the reasons for the unhappiness of their love are of a different, psychological nature.

Emin completely focused on the laws and nature of a person's emotional life, recreating in his novel the story of the long-term, faithful and devoted love of Ernest and Doravra, which survived all existing obstacles - wealth and poverty, Doravra's forced marriage, the news that Ernest's wife, whom he considered dead, alive, but at the moment when these obstacles disappeared (Ernest and Doravra were widowed), the inscrutable mystery and unpredictability of the life of the heart makes itself felt: Doravra marries again, but not Ernest. Emin demonstratively does not try to explain the reasons for her act, offering the reader a choice of two possible interpretations: marriage with Ernest could be prevented by the fact that Doravra blames himself for the death of her husband, who was shocked to find a bunch of Ernest's letters in his wife, and soon after that fell ill and died ... Marriage with Ernest could be hindered by the fact that Doravra simply fell out of love with Ernest: it is impossible to rationally explain why love arises and it is just as impossible to know the reasons why it passes.

Emin himself was well aware of the unusualness of his novel and the obstacles that created the solid foundations of classicist morality and the ideology of educational didactics for his perception. Rational normative aesthetics required unambiguous moral assessments; educational didactics demanded from the graceful literature the indispensable highest justice: the punishment of vice and the reward of virtue. But in the Russian democratic novel, focused more on the sphere of the emotional life of the heart than on the sphere of intellectual activity, this clarity of moral criteria began to blur, the categories of virtue and vice ceased to be functional in the ethical assessment of the hero's actions. The ending of a love story is not at all what one would expect a reader brought up on the classicist apology of virtue and the overthrow of vice. In the preface to his novel, Emin tried to explain his initial attitudes, which led the novel to such an ending:

‹…› It will be possible for some to discredit my taste due to the fact that the last parts do not correspond to the first, because in the former, constancy in love is almost to the highest degree ascended, and in the latter it suddenly collapsed. I myself will say that such a strong, virtuous and reasonable love should not be replaced. Believe me, benevolent reader, that it would not have been difficult for me to raise my romantic constancy even higher and finish my book to the pleasure of everyone, uniting Ernest with Doravroya, but fate did not like this end, and I was forced to write a book to her taste ...

The main aesthetic attitude of Emin, which he tries to express in his preface, is not an orientation towards what is proper, ideal, but an orientation towards the true, life-like. For Emin, it is not the abstract rational formula of passion that becomes the truth, but the real, everyday realization of this passion in the fate of an ordinary earthly inhabitant. This attitude also dictated concern about reliable psychological motivations for the actions and actions of the heroes, which is evident in the same preface to the novel:

Some <…> will have reason to say that in some of my opening letters there is a lot of superfluous preaching; but if they judge that the innate pride of every lover prompts the adored person to show their knowledge, they will see that they should blame much less those who, having correspondence with very reasonable mistresses, <... in this way, having captivated the mind of the formerly strict person, it was more convenient to approach her heart.

However, this attitude towards the image of the truth of the spiritual and emotional life of a person, which was largely successfully implemented in Emin's novel, came into conflict with a completely conventional, non-everyday space: the novel, conceived and implemented as a Russian original novel about Russian people, the writer's contemporaries, is in no way correlated with realities of national life. For example, here is how the hero's village solitude is described:

Here nature, in its delicate colors and green leaves, reveals its gaiety and liveliness; here roses, in vain, we who admire them, as if ashamed, blush, and pleasant lilies, which are not like roses, have a pleasant appearance, seeing their natural bashfulness, as if in their tender light they show a pleasant smile. The vegetables of our gardens satisfy us better than the most pleasant and skillfully seasoned foods that are consumed on magnificent tables. Here there is a pleasant marshmallow, as if having a dwelling of its own, embracing different flowers ‹…›. The pleasant singing of songbirds serves us instead of music ‹…›.

If for the Russian democratic reader of the second half of the 18th century, for the most part unfamiliar with the life of European countries, the exotic geography of Miramonda is no different from the conventionally European geography of authorless histories or even from the allegorical geography of the fictional island of Love, then from the Russian novel, Russian the reader had the right to demand recognition of the realities of national life, practically eliminated from the novel Letters of Ernest and Doravra. Thus, the next step in the evolutionary development of the novel turned out to be prescribed by this situation: to replace the life-like in the spiritually-emotional plane, but conditional in everyday life, Chulkov's novel comes Chulkov's authentically everyday novel, created with a democratic attitude towards reproducing another truth: the truth of the national social and private life of the grassroots democratic environment. So the Russian democratic novel of 1760-1770. in its evolution reflects the regularity of the projection of the philosophical picture of the world onto the national aesthetic consciousness: in the person of Emin, the novel masters the ideal-emotional sphere, in the person of Chulkov - the material and everyday life.

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Stratification of the novel As far as I can see, the wandering nerve of discussion has gradually shifted from an orderly contrived postmodern agitation to a much more fundamental question about the fate of fiction as it has been for more than three centuries.

The ideological movement, called "Enlightenment", spread in European countries in the 18th century. It was imbued with the spirit of the struggle against all the generations and manifestations of feudalism. Enlighteners put forward and defended the ideas of social progress, equality, free development of the individual.

The enlighteners proceeded from the conviction that a person is born kind, endowed with a sense of beauty, justice and equal to all other people. An imperfect society, its cruel laws are contrary to human, "natural"

Nature. Therefore, it is necessary for a person to remember his high destiny on earth, to appeal to reason - and then he himself will understand what is good and what is evil, he himself will be able to answer for his actions, for his life. It is only important to enlighten people, to influence their consciousness.

The Enlighteners believed in the omnipotence of reason, but for them this category was filled with a deeper meaning. Reason was only supposed to contribute to the reorganization of the whole society.

The future was presented to the enlighteners as "the kingdom of reason." That is why they attached great importance to science, establishing

"Cult of knowledge", "cult of the book". It is characteristic that it was in the 18th century that the famous French "Encyclopedia" was published in 28 volumes. It promoted new views on nature, man, society, art.

The writers, poets, playwrights of the 18th century strove to prove that not only science, but also art can contribute to the re-education of people worthy of living in a future harmonious society, which should be built again according to the laws of reason.

The enlightenment movement originated in England (Daniel Defoe "Robinson Crusoe", Jonathan Swift "Gulliver's Travels", the great Scottish poet Robert Burns). Then the ideas of the Enlightenment began to spread throughout Europe. In France, for example, the enlighteners include Voltaire, Rousseau, Beaumarchais, in Germany - Lessing, Goethe, Schiller.

Educational ideals also existed in Russian literature. They were reflected in the works of many authors of the 18th century, but most clearly in Fonvizin and Radishchev.

In the depths of the Enlightenment, new tendencies appeared, foreshadowing the emergence of sentimentalism. Attention to the feelings, experiences of a common person is increasing, moral values are being affirmed. So, above we mentioned Rousseau as one of the representatives of the Age of Enlightenment. But he was also the author of the novel "New Eloise", which is rightfully considered the pinnacle of European sentimentalism.

The humanistic ideas of the Enlightenment found a peculiar expression in German literature, where a literary movement arose, known as "Storm and Onslaught". Supporters of this movement strongly rejected the classicist norms that fettered the creative individuality of the writer.

They defended the ideas of the national originality of literature, demanded the portrayal of strong passions, heroic deeds, vivid characters, and at the same time developed new methods of psychological analysis. This, in particular, was the work of Goethe and Schiller.

Literature of the Enlightenment took a step forward both in the theoretical understanding of the goals and objectives of art, and in artistic practice. New genres appear: the novel of education, philosophical stories, family drama. More attention began to be paid to moral values, the assertion of the self-consciousness of the human person. All this became an important stage in the history of literature and art.

Quite widespread in the literature of this era was enlightenment classicism... Its largest representatives in poetry and drama, and especially in the tragic genre, was Voltaire. The "Weimar classicism" was of great importance - its theoretical principles were vividly embodied in Schiller's poems and in Goethe's "Iorigenia and Taurida".

Enlightening realism was also distributed. Its representatives were Diderot, Lessing, Goethe, Defoe, Swift.

The most famous works of the Age of Enlightenment:

In l-re England: -Daniel Dafoe "Robinson Crusoe", -Jonathan Swift "Gulliver's Travels", -Richardson "Pamela or Rewarded Virtue", - Poetry by Robert Burns

In l-re France: - "Persian Letters" by Montesquieu, - "The Virgin of Orleans", "Prodigal Son", "Fanaticism or Prophet Mohammed" by Voltaire. - "The Nephew of Rameau", "Jacques the Fatalist" by Diderot. - "New Eloise", "Confession" by J.-J. Russo.

In l-re Germany: - "Treachery and Love", "The Robbers" by Schiller, - "Faust", "The Suffering of Young Werther" by Goethe.

Studying Literary Theory in High School

The study of literary theory helps to navigate a work of art, in the work of a writer, in the literary process, to understand the specifics and conventions of art, fosters a serious attitude towards spiritual wealth, develops principles for evaluating literary phenomena and the ability to analyze them, sharpens and develops critical thought of students, contributes to the formation of aesthetic flavors. New in art will be better understood and appreciated by the one who knows the laws of art, imagines the stages of its development).

Being included in the general process of shaping the world outlook of young people, theoretical and literary knowledge becomes a kind of stimulator of the growth of their communist convictions.

The study of literary theory improves the methods of mental activity, which are important both for the general development of schoolchildren and for the assimilation of other educational subjects.

There is one more extremely important side of the issue. The level of perception of other arts by young men and women largely depends on how the study of the theory of literature at school is organized. The primitive naturalistic approach to motion pictures, theatrical performances, and paintings (which the authors of the collection "Artistic Perception" 1 write with alarm) is explained by the unsatisfactory theoretical training of the youth in the field of art. Obviously, in the course of literature, it is necessary to increase attention to those moments that reveal and characterize the general features of literature and other types of art, the general laws of the development of art, without weakening attention to the specifics of literature.

In IV-VI grades, assimilating specific information about the differences between prose and poetic speech, about the speech of the author and the speech of the actors, about the figurative and expressive means of the language, about verse, about the structure of a literary work, about a literary hero, about genres and some genres of literature, getting acquainted with the facts of creative history individual works, with the attitude of the writer to the characters and events depicted, facing fiction in fairy tales, epics, fables, figuring out the life-basis of such works as "The Story of a Real Man" by B. Polevoy, "Childhood" by M. Gorky, "School ”A. Gaidar, students gradually accumulate observations on the essence of the figurative reflection of life, and something they fix in the simplest definitions. In this regard, the formulation of a theoretical question about the differences between literature and oral folk art, literary fairy tales from folk tales, acquires special significance.

A more systematic study of the theory of literature begins with the VII grade.

VII class. The imagery of fiction. Concept
artistic image. Related question 6 is the role of creative imagination. (The statement of the problem of literary imagery is conditioned by the interests of the literary development of students and the special place that the 7th grade occupies as a class "borderline" between the two stages of literary education - propedeutic and based on the historical-chronological principle. individual works, they simultaneously master in connection with the basic concept of the concepts of theme, idea, plot, composition of the work.)

VIII class. Typical in literature. The concept of a literary type (in its relationship with the concept of an artistic image).

The appeal to the problem of the typical is based on the formulation of the problem "author - reality" and presupposes consideration from a certain angle of view of the question of personal character, artistic creativity, and ways of expressing the author's consciousness. Favorable conditions for attracting the attention of schoolchildren to issues of the personal nature of artistic creativity are also created by the VIII grade program (study of biographies of writers, work on several works of one author), and the nature of the studied works (lyric and lyric-epic works, a form of narration in the first person), and orientation of students' cognitive interests.

IX class. The class and nationality of literature (and related issues of the worldviews of the individual style of the writer). The advancement of the problem of class and nationality in literature is based on the peculiarity of the course of the 9th grade (the fierce class struggle in Russian literature of the 60s of the XIX century, the solution of many fundamental social problems by different writers from different ideological and aesthetic positions) and on the level of preparedness of students in literature and history.

X class. The partisanship of literature and related issues of socialist realism. For the comprehension of the concepts of the partisanship of literature and socialist realism, "summit" concepts that are extremely important for the formation of the world outlook and the upbringing of the student's personality, schoolchildren are essentially preparing throughout the course of literature. In the process of assimilating these concepts, students deepen and improve their knowledge both on general problems of fiction and on problems associated with the study of a work of fiction.

Thus, in each class, a complex of theoretical problems (concepts) is studied, organized by the central "general" problem for this class, and this latter is constantly put in connection with other problems (concepts).

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1. Adults and children in Gorky's story "Childhood".
2. Natasha's selfless love for her mother in Tolstoy's novel War and Peace.
3. Resentment of the child in Bunin's story "Figures".
4. Raising little Ilya in Goncharov's novel Oblomov.
5. The attitude of parents to children in Odoevsky's work "Excerpts from Masha's Magazine".

The relationship between "fathers" and "children" is a very complex problem that exists at all times. The conflict between the generation of "fathers" and the generation of "children" is highlighted in many works of Russian classical literature. But relationship difficulties do not suddenly arise. They are a direct consequence of the inattentive and disrespectful attitude towards children. Turning to the works of Russian classical literature allows us to see with our own eyes the mistakes adults made when raising children, and the obvious consequences of these mistakes.

Let us recall the autobiographical work of M. Gorky "Childhood". After the death of his father, the main character returns to his grandfather's house with his mother. Here he has to face cruelty and injustice. It is this attitude towards children that flourishes in the family of relatives. Gorky himself says that in the work he showed "the leaden abominations of life." All relatives are gloomy, greedy people, angry at everyone and everything. And no less cruel and despotic grandfather.

Children grow up in an atmosphere of bitterness and mutual hatred. They are constantly beaten for any, even the most insignificant offense. This is exactly the kind of "upbringing" that the grandfather adheres to. Literally in the first days of his stay in the house of relatives, the grandfather spotted the boy until he lost consciousness. The children did not feel any love and attention towards themselves. Only my grandmother was the only kind person who showed love and respect for Alyosha. With the passage of time, the protagonist remembers only his grandmother with a kind word. And the grandfather received in full for all the evil he caused to others: “... when the grandmother had already calmed down forever, the grandfather himself walked the streets of the city, beggar and insane, begging pitifully under the windows:

- My good cooks, give me a piece of a pie, I would have a pie! Eh you-and ... "

The old man at the end of his life was forced to beggar, despite the fact that he had a large family. But no one seemed to want to take care of him. And no wonder, because the grandfather himself did not show kindness towards his loved ones.

But in Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace, Natasha Rostova touchingly cares about her mother. After the death of Petya, Natasha's brother, the countess immediately turned into an old woman. Natasha does not leave her mother. “She alone could keep her mother from mad despair. For three weeks Natasha lived hopelessly with her mother, slept in an armchair in her room, gave her drink, fed her and spoke to her incessantly, - she said, because one gentle, caressing voice calmed the countess. " Love for her mother makes Natasha stronger. A young girl finds the strength to support and help a loved one. There is nothing surprising in this. In the Rostov family, children have always been treated with attention, love and care. And when the time came, the already matured children began to treat their parents in the same way. Their family has never had conflicts, mutual enmity and hatred. Therefore, Natasha, forgetting about everything, does not leave her mother, tries to support and help her.

If we compare the atmosphere in the Kashirins 'house, which is described in Gorky's story "Childhood", with the atmosphere in the Rostovs' house, then the difference will be enormous. And the point is not only that the Rostov family did not know financial difficulties and problems. Mutual love and respect reign in the Rostov family, which in the family of little Alyosha no one even thinks about.

Memories of childhood remain forever in the memory of an adult. Conflicts between older and younger generations are often predetermined by negative memories. Sometimes a seemingly subtle and insignificant episode can have a profound effect on a child's developing character. Let us recall the story of I. A. Bunin "Figures". This short work clearly shows us how adults can be inattentive towards a baby. There is only one child in a family of several adults. And it is not at all difficult for relatives to be a little more attentive to him. But no, adults are unhappy with the fact that the child is a "big naughty". In fact, the boy does not come across as spoiled. He is inquisitive, learns the world with interest. But his relatives are doing everything they can to calm him down. They do not even try to understand that the child is overwhelmed with energy, that he cannot sit in one place, as they themselves do. Here we learn that the boy, overflowing with the joy of life, shouted. "He shouted, completely forgetting about us and completely surrendering to what was happening in your soul overflowing with life, - shouted with such a ringing cry of causeless, divine joy that the Lord God himself would smile at this cry." The boy's behavior seems unacceptable to adults. And the uncle starts yelling at him, even allows himself to spank the baby. Such behavior on the part of adults undermines the child's faith in them. I don’t want to justify the act of my uncle towards the boy. It would seem that this is an isolated episode. But how many such situations arise while children are small. All this remains in the memory forever. And it is no longer surprising that in the souls of matured children there is no boundless respect and love for their elders. In Bunin's story, we see that the uncle's unjust act greatly offended the boy. The baby is crying. But neither mom nor grandmother wants to calm and caress the offended baby. They adhere to the principles of strict parenting. But from the outside they seem to be indifferent and callous people. In fact, even an uncle finds it hard to hear the crying of a child: “I was unbearable either. I wanted to get up from my place, to open the door to the nursery and immediately, with one hot word, put an end to your suffering. But is this consistent with the rules of a reasonable upbringing and with the dignity of a just, albeit strict uncle. " And the child was disappointed in his uncle. Previously, he sincerely and unconditionally loved him. Now the boy looks at his uncle with "angry, contemptuous eyes." This is completely justified. After all, an adult uncle offended a defenseless child.

It is impossible to disagree with the fact that raising children is a very, very difficult matter. The task of adults is not only to love and respect the child, but also to provide him with the necessary freedom to realize his aspirations. The absence of this freedom will lead to the fact that the child will grow up weak, weak-willed. This is exactly what happened to the protagonist of Goncharov's novel Oblomov. If you remember the childhood of Ilya Ilyich Oblomov, then we can say with confidence that it was happy and carefree. The boy was very loved, he was surrounded by attention and care. But at the same time, the child was not given the opportunity to prove himself. Little Ilya could not make a single step on his own. If his mother “let him go for a walk in the garden, in the yard, in the meadow, with strict confirmation to the nanny not to leave the child alone, not to allow him to the horses, dogs, to the goat, not to go far from home, and most importantly, not to let him into the ravine, as the most terrible place in the neighborhood, with a bad reputation. " The boy was deprived of the opportunity to learn something new, to show his desires and abilities. Little Ilya was very fond of listening to the fairy tales that the nanny told him. Fairy tales became for him the only possible reality, because he did not know or see anything else in his life. And this dreaminess served him in disservice. "The adult Ilya Ilyich, although later he learns that there are no honey and milk rivers, there are no good sorceresses, although he jokes with a smile over the nanny's tales, this smile is insincere, it is accompanied by a secret sigh: his fairy tale has mixed with life, and he is powerless sometimes sad, why a fairy tale is not life, and life is not a fairy tale.,. ". It is quite possible that Oblomov's life would have developed quite differently if from childhood he had learned to show independence, to try to do something. But alas. Oblomov could only dream. He never learned to act. He spent whole days in useless daydreaming, while real life passed by. “Everything pulls him in the direction where they only know that they are walking, where there are no worries and sorrows; he always has the disposition to lie on the stove, walk around in a ready-made, unearned dress and eat at the expense of a good sorceress. " This is not a small part of his parents' fault. They did not allow the child to feel independent. And, having become an adult, he remained as sluggish, lack of initiative as he was in childhood.

In my opinion, an excellent example of correct upbringing is shown in the work of VF Odoevsky "Excerpts from Masha's Magazine." The work is written in the genre of diary notes. The diary is kept by a ten-year-old girl named Masha. Thanks to her notes, we get the opportunity to learn about the upbringing of children in noble families. Masha's parents are smart and forward-looking. They do not hide the difficulties of real life from children, they give children the opportunity to show their independence. We see how parents bring up a sense of responsibility in the girl, how they help her learn to manage the house.

It is very interesting how parents explain to their daughter questions related to money spending. Mom gives Masha the opportunity to dispose of the funds that are allocated for her wardrobe herself. The girl, of course, cannot resist the temptation to purchase an expensive and beautiful fabric for a dress. But my mother delicately, but very lucidly, explains the unreasonableness of large spending, because it is necessary to buy several things. It is noteworthy that Masha has no grudge against her mother, who refused to buy expensive fabric. No, the girl herself begins to understand the need to save money on something in order to be able to purchase what she needs. Mom says to her daughter: “I am very glad that you want to use the money for real need, and not on a whim. Today you have taken a big step towards the important science of living. " She also invites Masha to remember the words of Franklin: "If you buy what you do not need, then soon you will sell what you need."

In addition to monetary issues, the work shows that parents inspire children with the need to learn, get an education. Parents, using the examples of families of close acquaintances, show the difficulties and problems that can be encountered in life. Thus, the character of the children is formed. They learn to answer serious questions, they become smarter and more serious.

Parents treat Masha and her brothers like adults. They explain to children what they do not yet understand. And children are not afraid to contact their parents with this or that question. If the family is dominated by relationships based on mutual understanding and trust in each other, conflicts are unlikely to ever arise. We do not know how the further fate of Masha and her brothers developed. But, judging by the atmosphere in the family, it can be assumed that in the future they never had disagreements and hostility towards each other. By the example of only a small number of works, we are convinced that the topic of raising children is one of the most difficult and pressing problems of mankind. This can explain its relevance in the writing environment.

The Age of Enlightenment call the period of the late 17th and entire 18th century in Europe, when there was scientific revolution, which turned the view of mankind on the structure of nature... The enlightenment movement is emerging in Europe at a time when it becomes apparent crisisfrom the feudal system... Social thought is on the rise, and this leads to the emergence of a new generation of writers and thinkers who are trying to comprehend the mistakes of history and derive a new optimal formula for human existence.

The beginning of the Age of Enlightenment in Europe can be considered the publication of labor John Locke's "Experience on the Human Mind"(1691), which later allowed to call the XVIII century "the age of reason". Locke argued that in all people there are inclinations for different forms of activity, and this led to the denial of any class privileges. If there are no "innate ideas", then there are no people of "blue blood" who claim special rights and advantages. The enlighteners have a new type of hero - an active, self-confident person.
Concepts become basic for the writers of the Enlightenment Mind and Nature... These concepts were not new - they were present in the ethics and aesthetics of previous centuries. However, the enlighteners gave them a new meaning, made them the main ones both in condemning the past and in affirming the ideal of the future. The past was in most cases condemned as unreasonable. The future was vigorously asserted, as the enlighteners believed that through education, persuasion and continuous reform, a "kingdom of reason" could be created.

Locke "Thoughts on education": "The teacher must teach the pupil to understand people ... to tear off the masks imposed on them by profession and pretense, to distinguish what is genuine, which lies in the depths of such an appearance."
The so-called "laws of nature" were also discussed. Locke wrote: "The natural state is a state of freedom, it is governed by the laws of nature, which everyone is obliged to obey"
Thus, a new type of hero appears in literature - "Natural man", who was brought up in the bosom of nature and according to its fair laws and is opposed to a person of noble origin with his perverted ideas about himself and about his rights.

Genres

In the literature of the Enlightenment, the former rigid boundaries between philosophical, journalistic and artistic genres are erased. This is especially noticeable in the essay genre, which was most widespread in the literature of the early Enlightenment (French essai - attempt, trial, sketch). Easy to understand, relaxed, and flexible, this genre made it possible to quickly respond to events. In addition, this genre often bordered either a critical article, or a publicistic pamphlet, or an educational novel. The importance of memoirs (Voltaire, Beaumarchais, Goldoni, Gozzi) and the epistolary genre (the form of an open letter often took the form of an open letter was often taken by extended speeches on a wide variety of issues of public, political and artistic life) The personal correspondence of prominent figures of the Enlightenment ("Persian Letters" by Montesquieu ). Another documentary genre is gaining popularity - travel or travel notes, which gives wide scope for pictures of social life and customs, and for deep socio-political generalizations. For example, J. Smollett, in his Journey through France and Italy, foresaw the revolution in France for 20 years.
The flexibility and fluidity of storytelling comes in many different forms. The texts include author's digressions, dedications, inserted novellas, letters and even sermons. Quite often jokes and parodies were substituted for a scholarly treatise (G. Fielding "The Tragedy of Tragedies, or the Life and Death of the Great Boy - with - a finger"). Thus, in the educational literature of the 18th century, first of all, its thematic richness and genre diversity are striking. Voltaire: “All genres are good, except the boring” - this statement, as it were, emphasizes the rejection of any normativity, the unwillingness to give preference to one genre. Yet genres have evolved unevenly.
The 18th century is predominantly a century of prose, therefore, a novel that combines high ethical pathos with the skill of depicting the social life of different strata of modern society is gaining great importance in literature. In addition, the 18th century is distinguished by a variety of types of novels:
1. novel in letters (Richardson)
2. parenting romance (Goethe)
3. philosophical novel
The theater was a tribune for educators. Along with the classicistic tragedy, the 18th century discovered philistine drama - a new genre that reflected the process of democratization of the theater. Has reached a special heyday comedy ... In the plays, the audience was attracted and excited by the image of the hero - the accuser, the bearer of the educational program. For example, Karl Moor "The Robbers". This is one of the features of the literature of the Enlightenment - it carries a high moral ideal, most often embodied in the image of a positive hero (didacticism - from the Greek didaktikos - instructive).
The spirit of denial and criticism of everything obsolete naturally led to bloom of satire... Satire penetrates all genres and promotes world-class masters (Swift, Voltaire).
Poetry was presented very modestly in the Age of Enlightenment. Probably, the dominance of rationalism hindered the development of lyric creativity. Most of the educators had a negative attitude towards folklore. They perceived folk songs as "barbaric sounds", they seemed to them primitive, not meeting the requirements of reason. Only at the end of the 18th century did poets appear who entered world literature (Burns, Schiller, Goethe).

Directions

There are different artistic directions in the literature and art of the Enlightenment. Some of them were in previous centuries, while others became the merit of the 18th century:
1) baroque ;
2) classicism ;
3) educational realism - the flowering of this trend belongs to the mature Enlightenment. Enlightenment realism, in contrast to critical realism of the 19th century, strives for the ideal, that is, it reflects not so much the real as the desired reality, therefore the hero of the Enlightenment literature lives not only according to the laws of society, but also according to the laws of Reason and Nature.
4) rococo (fr. rococo - "small pebbles", "shells") - writers are interested in the private, intimate life of a person, his psychology and his weaknesses. Writers portray life as a pursuit of fleeting pleasure (hedonism), as a gallant game of "love and chance" and as a fleeting holiday ruled by Bacchus (wine) and Venus (love). However, everyone understood that these joys were fleeting and fleeting. This literature is designed for a narrow circle of readers (visitors to aristocratic salons) and is characterized by small-sized works (in poetry - a sonnet, madrigal, rondo, ballad, epigram; in prose - a heroic-comic poem, a fairy tale, a love story and an erotic story ). The artistic language of the works is light, graceful and relaxed, and the tone of the story is witty and ironic (Prevost, Guys).
5) sentimentalism ;
6) pre-romanticism - originated in England at the end of the 18th century and criticized the main ideas of the Enlightenment. Specific traits:
a) a dispute with the Middle Ages;
b) connection with folklore;
c) the combination of the terrible and the fantastic - the "gothic novel". Representatives: T. Chatterton, J. Macpherson, H. Walpole