Syntactic norms are the rules by which phrases and sentences are constructed in speech. Without mastery of syntactic norms, it is impossible to correctly express a thought, to construct a statement that would meet communicative tasks. A large number of syntactic errors makes speech illogical, inaccurate and makes it difficult for listeners (readers) to perceive it.
Norms for constructing phrases
In the Russian language, management norms are most often violated. Control is a type of subordinating connection in a phrase in which the main word requires a strictly defined case or prepositional case form from the dependent: pay(What?) travel(accusative case form); pay(for what?) for travel(form of the accusative case with the preposition for); monument to Pushkin(Not monument to Pushkin!).
Governance standards may change over time. For example, the verb control norm worry in a sentence from the novel Anna Karenina: And therefore the princess was more worried with Kitty than with the older children, does not correspond to modern ( worry about Kitty, about the children).
The wrong choice between variants of the case (prepositional-case) form can lead to speech errors.
Note:
faith(what?) - confidence(in what?);
director(what?) - manager(how?) - manager(how?); characteristic(for whom?) - peculiar(to whom?); be interested(how?) - interest(for what?); pay attention(for what?) - Attend(what?); full(what?) - filled(how?).
The main reason for deviation from the grammatical norm in the field of management is the confusion of words that are close in meaning or form and have different grammatical connections: (review of the play, But review of the performance, review of the article) or various variants of prepositional-case control for cognate words (rejoice(to whom? what? (for whom?) - delighted(how?) -joy(for whom? for what? (about whom? about what?) - glad(to whom? what? for whom?).
In cases where two forms seem possible, it is best to turn to dictionaries: in explanatory dictionaries, dictionary entries devoted to verbs and verbal nouns usually give examples of their use with dependent nouns; compatibility dictionaries and difficulty dictionaries also help in choosing the desired case or prepositional case form. Here are some examples of difficult management cases: Conclusionwhom (what)(expert opinion, dissertation council conclusion), about what(conclusion on the results of the inspection), Why(conclusion on the issue, on the problem).
Statementto whom whom(statement to the rector, associate professor of the department of pedagogy). Wrong statement to whom from whom(statement to the dean from student Petrov).
Controlabove what(control over the educational process), For what(control over the work of the department), what(control of students’ independent work).
ExplainWhat(explain the spelling of vowels). Wrong explain about what(explain the procedure for admission to the university). Opposeto whom; to what)(oppose a candidate for an academic degree, oppose public opinion), Why(to oppose a doctoral dissertation). Wrong oppose with whom(oppose with the speaker).
Reactionfor what(reaction to criticism). Wrong reaction o how(reaction to events).
Management.In the meaning of “managerial activity”- management by whom (what)(management of project participants, management of the educational process). In meaning "leaders" - management what(University managment). Meaning "textbook"- management Why(handbook of applied economics), for whom (what)(guide for students, guide for preparatory courses). Often, the choice of case of a controlled noun is complicated by the fact that the options are most often unequal - one is normative, and the other is colloquial, professional or outdated in nature:
immunity to smallpox - immunity against smallpox(options are equal);
to be afraid of uncle - to be afraid of uncle(colloquial); certificate with signature and seal - certificate signed and stamped(official).
Many words have dependent noun control options that differ in shades of meaning: wait for the bus
№ 25 (specific) - wait for the bus(any); bring food(some part) - bring food(All).
The use of the direct object with transitive verbs deserves special attention. Direct object is an addition in the form of the accusative or genitive case in the meaning of an object without a preposition: love pies, solve a problem, and a transitive verb is a verb that can take a direct object. The absence of a direct object after a transitive verb indicates the incompleteness of the sentence; in some cases, such absence can be assessed as a grammatical error: Not only did the colonel punish, but also hit the short, weak soldier in the face. This characterizes that Molchalin is a two-faced person(from essays).
To create a language game, a direct object can be placed after an intransitive verb: We'll go walk our dog. He was fired from his job. His father enrolled him in university.
You should also pay attention to the peculiarities of using the direct object with transitive verbs with negation. In this case, it is possible to use not only the accusative, but also the genitive case: not liking pies (pies), not solving a problem (tasks).
It is better to use the genitive case when there is a particle in the sentence neither or a negative pronoun (adverb) with a prefix neither-: didn’t eat a single pie; I haven't seen a single book from this publisher." with gerunds or participles: not knowing the answer, not knowing the answer; in infinitive sentences: Don't open your mouth to anyone! and so on. The accusative case is required in sentences in which the negation does not refer to the predicate verb, but to another word: didn't complete the task completely(accusative case), but didn't complete the task(Genitive). It is recommended to use the accusative case for forms of the imperative mood: Don't throw your phone anywhere! Don't read a book lying down!" with double negative: it is impossible not to pay attention to this problem, it is impossible not to take this factor into account and so on.
It is also necessary to remember the peculiarities of using pairs of prepositions in - from And us: if a preposition is used with a word V, then the preposition must be used with it from; if it is only possible to use the preposition on the, then the antonymous phrase is formed with the preposition with: go to work - return from work; go to school - return from school.
Collocations come from the store, return from college, leave school and so on. are distinctly colloquial in nature. Such mistakes should be avoided. Correct phrases: come from the store, return from the institute, leave from school, from the hairdresser, from the bakery, from the department store, from the workshop, from the workshop, But leave the faculty, work, classes, courses, service.
Prepositions are usually used with geographical names to - from: to Kazan - from Kazan, to Siberia - from Siberia, to Crimea - from Crimea, to Sochi - from Sochi. Exceptions are the names of some mountain areas: go to the Caucasus - return from the Caucasus; will go to the Pamirs - return from the Pamirs; arrive to Altai - fly from Altai", however, the correct use would be to the Khibiny - from the Khibiny, to the Himalayas - from the Himalayas. As for the toponym Ukraine, then prepositions are used with this geographical name to - from: go to Ukraine - return from Ukraine(cf.: to Volyn, to Chernigov region, to Lviv region, to Bryansk region). The accepted version in Russian in Ukraine recalls the origin of the geographical name: the word Ukraine is the same root as the words edge, outskirts, edge, forming combinations with prepositions on: on the edge, on the outskirts. Common (especially in formal speech) usage in Ukraine emphasizes the use of the toponym as the name of the state.
Cardinal numbers, in the nominative or accusative case, control the noun, requiring a genitive form. Numerals two three four and compound numerals that include words two three four, in the nominative case they require after themselves a noun in the singular form of the genitive case ( sixty-two people; forty-four fighters), in indirect cases the noun is put in the same form as the numeral: thirty-nine students; six hundred twenty-four participants.
It is difficult to choose the form of nouns for verbs denoting feelings and experiences of a person ( grieve, cry, miss, yearn and etc.). These verbs are used with a preposition By in the dative case, and with the preposition o-in the prepositional case: to yearn for the past is to yearn for the past; to yearn for distant friends is to yearn for relatives.
Particular attention should be paid to cases of double subordination, since a situation where one dependent refers to two different words that require different prepositional or prepositional-case forms is unacceptable. Here are examples of such errors: *Proficiency and use of modern educational technologies, including information and communication technologies in the process of teaching the subject and in educational work(from the report); *The poem feels adoration and love for the work of the great poet(from the essay). To avoid such errors, usually after the first word they put an addition in the required form, and add a pronoun to the second, also observing the norms of prepositional case control: Mastery of modern educational technologies, including information and communication technologies, and their use in the process of teaching the subject and in educational work. You can also rearrange the sentence in such a way as to get rid of the double subordination: In the poem one can feel the adoration of the great poet and love for his work.
The norms for constructing word combinations with the connection agreement are violated less often. Coordination- a type of subordinating syntactic connection of words in a phrase, in which the dependent word acquires the same grammatical meanings as the main one.
A grammatical error is a violation of the norms for agreeing adjectives and participles with nouns.
When coordinating a definition with a common noun, the gender of the person who names the noun is taken into account: dear colleague And Dear colleague. For complex words, the definition agrees with the part that is declined: inexpensive cafe-snack.
Difficulties or errors in agreement can be caused by ignorance of the gender of the noun, often associated with a misunderstanding of the meaning of the word, or fluctuations in gender: *In our store you can purchase inexpensive drape, wonderful silk for a dress and magnificent tulle(radio advertising).
The form of the adjective is similar to the noun in gender, number and case. Definition between numerals (two three four) and a controlled noun, can be in the nominative-accusative or genitive case: three faithful comrades - three faithful comrades. If the speaker wants to emphasize the quality of the object (fidelity), then he uses the nominative-accusative case form (faithful), and if it is more important to indicate quantity, use the genitive case form (faithful). If the definition refers to a feminine noun, then the nominative-accusative case form is preferred: four blank notebooks; Yulina's three friends.
Variability in the choice of a dependent word occurs if the indeclinable noun experiences fluctuations in gender: strong whiskey - strong whiskey.
It is necessary to take into account the stylistic variation in the coordination of applications such as: in the city of Moscow - in the city of Moscow(the first phrase is acceptable in official speech).
Violation of agreement norms is a grammatical error. It is unacceptable to replace control (as a type of syntactic connection) with coordination (cf.: problematic arrangement of material instead of arrangement of material by problem).
One of the fairly common features of modern speech is the tracing of syntactic constructions unusual for the Russian language, for example, in advertising: Restaurant “Market” from Arkady Novikov is a south-eastern market”; delicious dishes from the restaurant "Yerevan"", new novel from the creator of The Alchemist. Such usage should certainly be considered erroneous.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of phrases and sentences. When constructing sentences, it is necessary to remember that in the Russian language, with free word order, direct word order is preferable rather than reverse (inversion). In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, and the original information precedes the new information. If this order is not followed, the sentence may be ambiguous. For example, how to understand the phrase The owner of the house was sleeping? Are we talking about the sleeping owner of the house, or about where the owner slept?
Building a phrase need to remember about management. For example , director of something, in charge of something, pay for something, pay for something, talk about something, point out something, worry about someone, worry about someone, superiority over something, advantage over someone, etc.
Prepositions thanks to, according to, in spite of require the use of the dative case– according to the timetable.
To express cause-and-effect relationships, prepositions are used: in view of, as a result of, in connection with, by virtue of, etc.
It is erroneous to use two subjects: The room was not small at all.
It is often unjustified to include a word like this: Automation conditions, they are like this...
With a subject expressed by a collective noun(row, majority, minority, part) in combination with the genitive plural, the predicate is usually placed in the plural if we are talking about animate objects, and in the singular if we are talking about inanimate ones (most students passed the exams).
At the words a lot, a little, a little, a lot, how many predicates are put in the singular: How many schemes have been developed?
When constructing a participle phrase, we must remember that the main action, expressed by the verb, and the additional action, expressed by the participle, are performed by one person: While reading a book, the student usually took notes.
When using homogeneous members of a sentence, you must remember:
It is impossible to combine heterogeneous concepts as homogeneous members – study mathematics and types of tea;
And also it is impossible to include specific and generic concepts - I love mathematics, physics, academic subjects;
Double unions must be connected by homogeneous members: he not only received the technical assignment, but also completed it;
With two homogeneous members, a common controlled word is put in the event that the control words require the same case and preposition: read and take notes on lectures; wrong, to love and think about the country.
Often found errors associated with the use of prepositions. How to say: I miss you or I miss you? The older norm was to use the preposition By and pronouns in the prepositional case : for whom, for what, for him, for us, for you. The nouns in this construction had the form of the dative case: by father, by mother, by friend. Because nouns with a preposition By had the form of the dative case, then the pronouns began to take on the same form: by whom, by him, by what, by them. Prepositional forms by whom, by him, by what are now outdated and rare. Keep the old form of the prepositional case after a preposition By pronouns we, you: for us, for you. The use of the dative case for these pronouns (for us, for you) is considered a violation of the literary norm.
Prepositions require special attention on And V. They indicate staying in some place or moving to some place. The preposition in shows that the movement is directed inside something (into the garden, into the house, into the city) or denotes being inside (in the garden, in the house, in the city). Pretext on indicates that the movement is directed towards the surface of something (a mountain, a tree, a roof), or means being on some surface (on a roof, on a deck). But more often the choice of preposition is determined by tradition.
Related information:
- I. Hypothesis is a part of a norm that indicates specific conditions (circumstances), in the presence or absence of which the norm begins to apply
Syntactic norms are a set of criteria that govern the correct construction and use of sentences and phrases. They are just as historically variable as morphological or phonetic, although this is less noticeable. For example, the Russian language has not used a construction for a long time in which a phrase with the dative case would act as a subordinate clause of time. It is precisely because of their archaic nature that syntactic norms of this type do not, as a rule, cause any difficulties for native speakers. However, even at the present stage, there are complex, ambiguous options for constructing various structures. Within the framework of this article, it is possible to consider only some of them.
1. To express the qualifications of the subject, different constructions are used in different styles of speech. Thus, journalistic and scientific literature is characterized by the construction of “who (what) is who (what)”, “what we will consider as what”. And in all other styles of speech, the constructions “who - what”, “who (what) was who (what)”, “what - (this) what” are used.
2. To name the date, which acts as the subject, we use cf. kind in Im. p.: What date is today? And to name the date, which is expressed with a predicate circumstance, an ordinal number is used in R. p.: What date will you arrive?
3. If a noun of m. gender names a position, title or profession, but denotes a woman, then in the book style the predicate is put in the form m. r., and in colloquial style - in the form w. r.: The director spoke to his subordinates.
4. If transport is indicated as a means of transportation, then the preposition “on” is used with the accusative or prepositional case. For example: Tourists boarded a tram and rode it to the desired stop. But if what is meant is not the type of transport, but the direction of movement into something or the location in something, then the preposition “in” is used with the accusative or prepositional case. For example: The tourists boarded the tram, and in it they were no longer afraid of the rain , no wind.
Syntactic norms have the following options.
1. If information is transmitted in the form then the person of the verb and pronoun changes. For example: I said: “I will arrive late.” - You said that (you) would arrive late.
2. The conjunctions “before” and “before” have shades of meaning in sentences with subordinate tenses. The first of them is used when you need to draw attention to the fact that the action of the main clause determines the action of the subordinate clause. For example: Before writing a test, review the material you have covered. The conjunction before “before” is used in the case when the actions in both sentences are closely interrelated and occur at almost the same time. For example: Before writing a test, at least review the material you have covered.
3. If it is necessary to highlight the purpose or reason, the compound conjunction is divided into two parts. In this case, the first of them remains in the main sentence, and the second goes to the subordinate clause. For example: She did not want to join them because it was not part of her plans. She did not want to join them because it was not part of her plans.
4. In subordinate clauses of comparison, the conjunctions “as if” and “as” are used. They have different meanings. It is advisable to use the first in sentences indicating a conditional, unreliable fact, and the second - indicating a comparison as a real fact. For example: It rained all summer, as it only happens in autumn. It rained all summer, as if someone was constantly squeezing out the clouds.
Syntactic ones develop naturally and objectively. This means that they do not depend on the desire or will of a particular native speaker. Syntactic norms are updated and formed along with the development of society, art and literature, with changing living conditions, the emergence of traditions and the improvement of human relationships.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of phrases and sentences. When constructing sentences, it is necessary to remember that in the Russian language, with free word order, direct word order is preferable rather than reverse (inversion). In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, and the original information precedes the new information. If this order is not followed, the sentence may be ambiguous. For example, how to understand the phrase: “The owner of the house was sleeping?” Are we talking about the sleeping owner of the house, or about where the owner slept? In the sentence: “There is no term of this kind in ancient documents,” a combination of this kind may refer to a combination of ancient documents or to the word term.
Building a phrase management must be kept in mind. For example, director of something, manageranythingpay for something, pay for something, talk about something, point out something, worry about someone, worry about someone, superiority over something, advantage over someone, etc.
Prepositions thanks, in agreement, in spite of require the use of the dative case - according to the timetable.
Prepositions are used to express cause-and-effect relationships in view of, as a result of, in connection with, due to and etc.
It is erroneous to use two subjects: The room was not small at all.
Often unjustified inclusion of the word such : Automation conditions, they are like this...
With a subject expressed by a collective noun (row, majority, minority, part) in combination with the genitive plural, the predicate is usually put in the plural if we are talking about animate objects, and in the singular if we are talking about inanimate objects (most of the students passed the exams).
At the words a lot, a little, a little, a lot, how much, who, what the predicate is put in the singular: How many schemes have been developed? What's happened?
Introducing in a sentence participial turnover, remember that the main action, expressed by a verb, and the additional action, expressed by a gerund, are performed by one person: While reading a book, the student usually took notes. Violation of this rule results in errors: Driving through Baikal, it was very beautiful.
When using homogeneous members of a sentence, the following circumstances should be taken into account:
it is impossible to combine heterogeneous concepts as homogeneous members – study mathematics and types of tea; and also it is impossible to include specific and generic concepts - I love mathematics, physics, academic subjects;
double unions must connect precisely homogeneous members: he not only received the technical assignment, but also completed it;
with two homogeneous members, a common controlled word is placed if the control words require the same case and preposition: read and take notes on lectures (wrong: love and think about the country).
Often There are errors associated with the use of prepositions. How to say: I miss you or me miss you?
The older norm was to use the preposition By and pronouns in the prepositional case: for whom, for what, for him, for us, for you. The nouns in this construction had the form of the dative case: by father, by mother, by friend. Because nouns with a preposition By had the form of the dative case, then the pronouns began to take on the same form: by whom, by him, by what, by them. Prepositional forms by whom, by him, by what are now outdated and rare.
Keep the old form of the prepositional case after a preposition By pronouns we, you: for us, for you.The use of the dative case for these pronouns (for us, for you) is considered a violation of literary norms.
Prepositions require special attention on And V. They indicate staying in some place or moving to some place. Pretext V shows that movement is directed towards something (Vgarden, home, city) or denotes being inside (in the garden, in the house, in the city). Pretext on indicates that movement is directed towards the surface of something (on the mountain, on the tree, on the roof), or means being on some surface (on the roof, on the deck). But more often the choice of preposition is determined by tradition.
The preposition is used with the names of states, regions, territories, regions, cities, villages, hamlets, villagesV: in Russia, in England, in the Krasnodar region, in the village of Veshenskaya, in the village of Molitovka.
The preposition is used with the names of islands and peninsulason the: in Kamchatka, Dikson, Capri.
Pretexton used with the names of avenues, boulevards, squares, streets; pretextV – with names of lanes, passages:on Vernadsky Boulevard, on Victory Square, on Suvorov Street, in Banny Lane, in Serov Passage.
If the names of mountain areas are in the singular form, then the preposition is usedon , if the plural form is a prepositionV . Wed:in the Caucasus, Elbrus, PamirAndin the Alps, in the Himalayas.
PrepositionsV Andon Vsome constructions are antonymous to prepositionsfrom AndWith : went to Stavropol- returned from Stavropol, went to the Caucasus - came from the Caucasus.
It is necessary to avoid piling up subordinate clauses, for example: Design engineers gathered for a meeting, which took place in the assembly hall, which was recently renovated by builders, which tried to correct deficiencies within the time period established by the plan, which approved a month ago in the same hall.
In M. Bulgakov’s novel “Heart of a Dog” there is an example of incorrect sentence construction: “We, the management of the house,” Shvonder spoke with hatred, “came to you after a general meeting of the residents of our building, at which the issue of densifying the apartments of the building was raised... - Who on whom did it stand? - shouted Philip Philipovich.”
References
L.A. Vvedenskaya et al. Russian language and speech culture: examination answers. Series “Passing the Exam.”/ L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva. – Rostov n/Don: “Phoenix”, 2003 – 288 p. (pp. 45 – 46).
Russian language and culture of speech: Course of lectures/G.K. Trofimova – M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2004 – 160 p. (pp. 65 – 66).
Questions for self-test
What are the features of syntax errors?
Can word order problems cause syntax errors?
Why do you need to be careful when using homogeneous members of a sentence?
In what cases is there a violation of agreement between the predicate and the subject?
What should you pay attention to when using prepositions?
Tasks for independent work
Exercise 1. Compose a brief abstract of the lecture “Syntactic norms and speech culture.”
Task 2. Select your own illustrative material for all points of the thesis.
Syntactic norms of the Russian literary language
1. The concept of syntactic norm
Syntactic norms are norms that regulate the rules for constructing phrases and sentences. Along with morphological norms, grammatical norms are formed.
Syntactic norms regulate both the addition of individual phrases (attaching definitions, applications, additions to the main word) and the construction of entire sentences (word order in a sentence, agreement between subject and predicate, use of homogeneous members, participial and adverbial phrases, connections between parts of a complex sentence) .
2. Word order in a sentence
In Russian, the order of words in a sentence is relatively free. The main thing is the direct word order adopted in the neutral style: subjects + predicates:
Example:
Students write a lecture.
Changes in the order of words depend on the actual division of the sentence - the movement of thought from the known (topic) to the new (rheme).
Example:
Compare: The editor read the manuscript. – The editor read the manuscript.
Changes in word order are called inversions.
Inversion is a stylistic technique of highlighting individual members of a sentence by rearranging them.
Typically inversion is used in works of art:
Example:
The verdict of fate was fulfilled (M.Yu. Lermontov), he passed the doorman and flew up the marble steps like an arrow (A.S. Pushkin).
The so-called unjustified inversion is also possible - violation of word order to the detriment of content:
Example:
He refused to participate in the event with all the students (only: He refused to participate in the event with all the students).
Unjustified inversion should be eliminated by using direct word order.
3. Difficult cases of agreement between subject and predicate
The connection between the subject and the predicate is called coordination and is expressed in the fact that the subject and the predicate agree on their general categories: gender, number. However, there are also difficult cases of coordination. Usually in such cases the subject has a complex structure - it contains several words.
1. Counting phrase + noun(two students, five hours, etc.) Units. number (emphasizes generality, also for numerals with 1). Plural (indicates the separateness of objects).
Example:
Twenty-five students are/are participating in the Olympiad.
(emphasizes generality, also for numerals starting with 1, also often together with animate nouns, also if there are words only, only, only).
Plural (indicates the separateness of objects). 3. Homogeneous subjects. Singular number (homogeneous subjects are joined by the preposition C). Plural (homogeneous subjects are joined by the conjunction AND).
Example:
The athlete and coach went to the competition.
The director and staff of the institute prepared this project.
Example:
4. Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
The definition expresses the characteristics of an object, most often it is an adjective or participle. The definition is consistent with the main word in the categories of gender, number and case.
1) Definition + counting phrase (= numeral + noun).
The position the definition takes is important!
Determination ahead of the counting phrase: in the form of the Nominative case.
Example:
last two years, new five letters, young three girls
Definition within the counting phrase: in the Genitive case for masculine and neuter nouns, and for feminine nouns - in the Nominative case:
Example:
the last two years, five new letters, three young girls
2) Homogeneous definitions + noun (denotes similar but separate objects):
A singular noun, if objects and phenomena are closely related in meaning or have a terminological nature:
Example:
In the right and left half of the house. Industrial and agrarian crisis.
A plural noun, if you need to emphasize the difference between objects and phenomena:
Example:
Biological and chemical faculties.
Amateur and professional tournaments.
3) Definition + homogeneous nouns: the definition is singular or plural, depending on whether it refers in meaning to the nearest word or to the entire phrase:
Example:
Russian literature and art.
Capable student and student.
4) Definition + noun with application: the definition is consistent with the main word (that is, with the noun):
Example:
new laboratory car
5. Coordination of applications with the defined word.
Application has an additional meaning in relation to the noun ( profession, status, occupation, age, nationality). For this reason, it is perceived as one with the noun:
1) the application, which is written with a hyphen, is consistent with the word being defined: on the new sofa bed.
2) applications that are written separately from the word being defined are not consistent with the word being defined:
Example:
in the newspaper "Rabochy Krai".
The norm related to the harmonization of geographical names is changing.
You can coordinate Russian geographical names and names in –iya with the word being defined:
Example:
In the city of Smolensk, in the village of Goryukhin, on the Volga River, in the Republic of India.
However, there is no such agreement in the case of foreign geographical names and astronomical names:
Example:
In the state of Texas, on Mount Elbrus, on the planet Venus.
6. Features of the use of homogeneous members
1) You cannot make words that are heterogeneous in meaning into homogeneous members.
Example:
Incorrect: By that time he already had a young wife and a large library.
2) Words with generic and specific meanings cannot be made homogeneous members (only: genus → species!).
Example:
Incorrect: Release of equipment (generic concept), devices and devices (specific concept).
3) Lexically and grammatically incompatible words cannot be made homogeneous members.
Example:
Incorrect: Wishes and conclusions were expressed (only: Wishes were expressed and conclusions were drawn).
Monitor and manage work (only: Monitor and manage work).
4) It is impossible to make grammatically and syntactically different words (different parts of speech, a word and part of a complex sentence) homogeneous members.
Example:
Incorrect: Books help us study and generally learn a lot of new things (only: Books help us study, give us the opportunity to learn a lot of new things).
Incorrect: The Dean spoke about academic performance and that exams are starting soon (only: The Dean spoke about academic performance and about exams that will begin soon).
5) If there is a preposition before homogeneous members, it should be repeated before each homogeneous member.
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