In nature, a person almost always finds another visual element that is new to the eyes, on which they can “linger” for a short time before the next saccade (visual elements are located quite densely and, as mentioned earlier, they differ from each other). In the city, in the presence of large homogeneous fields, there is no next visual object for the eye. As a result, the human brain does not receive the necessary information, and unpleasant sensations may occur. Therefore, homogeneous fields are unpleasant to the eye. Visual fields are “aggressive” when on the surface in question (walls, sidewalk, floor, wallpaper, fabric, etc.) there are many identical repeating elements (windows, tiles, seams, patterns, etc.). After each saccade, the eye sees the same element that has already been examined, which negatively affects the state of the nervous system and human health.

This explanation is not fully justified. Thus, in nature there are large homogeneous spaces (the surface of a calm lake, the sky, a desert, etc.) without any details, which are perceived by the eye quite positively. Skyscrapers covered with tinted glass that have no details on the facades (huge colored crystal) are perceived in the same way.

Architectural physics does not yet answer some pressing questions related to light science: about the positively perceived environmentally sound dimensions of rooms, buildings, cities; about the shapes of premises and buildings; about preferences in architectural styles, details, decoration. It can be noted that, firstly, spatial curvilinear forms are beautiful and acceptable for humans (a wavy line is a line of beauty), and secondly, a desire for diversity is necessary, similar to biodiversity in nature (architectural diversity of sizes, shapes, details, colors, taking into account nature-likeness), thirdly, it is desirable that the sizes of buildings correspond to the sizes of landscape components (primarily trees) and the human body.

Living nature does not obey the laws of symmetry. The seemingly symmetrical left and right halves of the face and body, legs, arms, and wings of animals are actually asymmetrical. It can be assumed that buildings and structures also should not be absolutely symmetrical. Individual characteristics of people play a large role in the positivity or, on the contrary, negativity of the visual perception of buildings and structures. It is known that some architects like skyscrapers, huge squares, wide avenues with flows of cars, etc. This is one of the manifestations of diversity.

Any fields that differ from those familiar to his senses can be considered aggressive for a person (for example, monotonous visual fields, strong and sharp noises and harmful odors, etc.). Aggressive sound and smell effects with constant contact with the organs of hearing and smell can cause painful conditions. As N.F. Reimers noted, people are historically more adapted to life in rural areas, so the urban environment causes stress in them.

Since ancient times, people have sought a pleasant sensory environment in buildings. Thus, “honey bricks”, “fragrant plaster”, “musical columns” are known. In the central part of the island of Sri Lanka there is a temple built more than five centuries ago. Clay for bricks was mixed with honey from wild bees, of which there were many on the island. After drying for a long time under the hot tropical sun, the “honey bricks” became very durable and retained their aroma for a long time. To create a pleasant aroma in the 12th century. In the Moroccan city of Koutoubia, during the construction of a tower, about a thousand barrels of incense were added to the clay and plaster mortar, the smell of which can be felt even now. In a mosque in the Indian city of Karid, called the Mosque of Smells, medieval builders mixed 3,500 kg of saffron into the plaster mortar. In India, granite columns in the ancient temples of Vitala, Mahshwar and others also sing: if you hit them with the palm of your hand, they make a sound reminiscent of the sound of wind instruments. Craftsmen, striking the columns with their palms and fingers, extract melodies. To create such columns, porous foundations were made from slabs of baked clay and sandstone.

The environment of modern cities is often aggressive for humans. Perhaps the mechanism of its aggressiveness is as follows: in the human brain, under the influence of the previous centuries-old natural environment and living conditions, a personal experience (personal environment) has developed, which determines his behavioral structure and biopsychological state; a nature-like image of the environment and its components (place of settlement, house, street) was created, corresponding to this previous experience. New sensory influences do not correspond to this experience and create tension in the psychophysiological state: the modern aggressive environment requires the creation of a new image of the city, a new structure of behavior. But previous experience took shape over a long historical development and cannot be quickly replaced by another; it takes a very long time.

The textbook outlines the theoretical foundations of the architectural design of buildings for various functional purposes, taking into account the climatic conditions of the construction site in order to create comfortable living and working conditions in them. The issues of climatology and the influence of climatic factors on the architectural, planning, structural and plastic solutions of buildings are considered. Methods for assessing climatic factors and architectural and climatic principles of building design are presented. Theoretical issues of heat transfer, vapor permeability and infiltration through single-layer and multi-layer enclosing structures are presented. The issues of soundproofing premises from airborne and impact noise, as well as measures to ensure regulatory requirements for the protection of residential areas from various noises, are considered. Modern methods are presented for determining the total and reduced heat transfer resistance of homogeneous and heterogeneous enclosing structures, taking into account energy savings for heating buildings, as well as the sound insulating qualities of vertical (walls and partitions) and horizontal (interfloor ceilings) enclosing structures. A significant part of the textbook is devoted to architectural acoustics, revealing theoretical issues of sound propagation in rooms and practical recommendations for the acoustic design of auditoriums, taking into account unobstructed visibility in them. The issues of natural and artificial lighting of residential, public and industrial buildings are considered. Methods for calculating the required glazing areas in the above premises and the sequence of verification calculations depending on the adopted lighting system are presented. The issues of designing lighting for cities, architectural ensembles and the light-color regime of urban development are considered.
Designed for independent work of bachelors in the direction 270800.62 “Construction” of the profiles “Industrial and Civil Construction” and “Design of Buildings and Structures”.

Relationship between climate and building architecture.
On the territory of our country, buildings and structures are subject to a complex of climatic influences in various combinations and varying intensities. Building climatology is a science that reveals the connections between climatic conditions and the architecture of buildings and urban developments. The main task of construction climatology is to substantiate the feasibility of urban development planning decisions, the choice of types of buildings and enclosing structures, taking into account the climatic characteristics of the construction area. The correct choice of size and shape of premises depends on a number of factors, among which a special place is occupied by the air environment, the characteristics of which depend on climatic conditions and the location of construction. For thousands of years, architects have known that cities and buildings should be designed and built according to climate, and that street widths, building heights, and window sizes should be chosen based on the orientation and depth of rooms. It is necessary to carefully and compositionally fit buildings and structures into nature. As practice shows, all architectural and urban masterpieces were created taking into account these eternal truths.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1. Construction climatology
1.1. Relationship between climate and building architecture
1.2. Climatic factors and their role in the design of buildings and structures
1.3. Climatic zoning
1.4. Architectural and climatic fundamentals of building design
1.5. Architectural analysis of climatic weather conditions
Chapter 2. Construction heating engineering
2.1. General provisions
2.2. Types of heat exchange
2.3. Heat transfer through fences
2.4. Resistance to heat transfer through single-layer and multi-layer enclosing structures made of homogeneous layers
2.5. Calculation of temperature inside building envelopes
2.6. Graphical method for determining the temperature inside a multilayer enclosing structure
2.7. The influence of the location of structural layers on the temperature distribution inside the building envelope
2.8. Methodology for designing thermal protection of buildings
2.9. Initial data for designing thermal protection of buildings
2.9.1. Indoor air parameters
2.9.2. External climatic conditions of the construction area
2.9.3. Design characteristics of building materials and structures
2.9.4. Calculation of heated areas and volumes of buildings
2.10. Determination of the standardized (required) heat transfer resistance of enclosing structures
2.11. Calculation of the total or reduced resistance to heat transfer of enclosing structures
2.12. Constructive solution for external fencing
2.13. Determination of sanitary and hygienic indicators of thermal protection of buildings
2.14. Calculation of specific heat energy consumption for heating buildings
2.15. Air humidity and moisture condensation in fences
2.15.1. Calculation of enclosing structures for water vapor condensation
2.15.2. Grapho-analytical method for determining the zone of possible condensation inside a multi-layer enclosing structure
2.15.3. Vapor permeability and protection against waterlogging of external fences
2.16. Air permeability of enclosing structures
2.17. Thermal resistance of external fences
2.17.1. Calculation of thermal resistance of enclosing structures in the warm season
2.17.2. Heat absorption of floor surfaces
2.18. Increasing the thermal insulation properties of existing buildings
2.19. Energy passport of the building
Control questions
Chapter 3. Architectural and construction lighting technology
3.1. Basic concepts, quantities and units of measurement
3.2. Light climate
3.3. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of lighting
3.4. Natural lighting of buildings
3.5. Natural and artificial lighting of buildings
3.6. Selection of natural lighting systems for rooms and light openings
3.7. Normalization of natural light
3.8. Natural Light Design
3.8.1. Determination of the area of ​​light openings of residential and public buildings with side or overhead natural lighting of premises
3.8.2. Calculation of the area of ​​light openings of industrial buildings with side or overhead natural lighting of premises
3.9. Test calculation of natural lighting of premises
3.9.1. The sequence of verification calculations for side lighting of industrial buildings
3.9.2. Calculation of natural lighting of industrial premises with overhead and combined light openings
3.9.3. Test calculation of natural lighting for lateral placement of light openings in residential and public buildings
3.9.4. The sequence of verification calculations for overhead or combined lighting of residential and public buildings
3.10. Calculation of time to use natural light indoors
3.11. Combined lighting of buildings
3.12. Technical and economic assessment of natural and combined lighting systems based on energy costs
3.13. Standardization and design of artificial lighting of premises
3.14. Architectural lighting technology
3.14.1. Standardization and design of city lighting
3.14.2. Design of lighting for architectural ensembles
3.15. Light-color regime of premises and urban development
3.16. Insolation and protection of premises from sunlight
3.17. Sun protection and light control in buildings
3.18. Economic efficiency of using insolation and sun protection
Chapter 4. Architectural acoustics and soundproofing of premises
4.1. General concepts about sound and its properties
4.2. Noise sources and their noise characteristics
4.3. Noise regulation and soundproofing of fences
4.4. Noise propagation in buildings
4.5. Soundproofing rooms from airborne and impact noise
4.5.1. Determination of the airborne noise insulation index for vertical single-layer flat enclosing structures of solid cross-section
4.5.2. Determination of the airborne noise insulation index for frame-sheathing partitions
4.5.3. Determination of the airborne noise insulation index for interfloor ceilings
4.5.4. Calculation of interfloor ceilings for impact noise
4.6. Measuring the sound insulation properties of building envelopes in acoustic chambers
4.7. Measures to ensure regulatory sound insulation of premises
4.8. Protection from noise of residential areas of cities and towns
4.9. Architectural acoustics
4.9.1. Assessment of the acoustic qualities of halls
4.9.2. Experimental methods for testing the acoustic qualities of halls
4.10. General principles of acoustic design of halls
4.11. Specific features of acoustic design of halls for various functional purposes
4.12. Modeling the acoustic properties of auditoriums
4.13. Visibility and visibility in entertainment structures
4.13.1. General principles for designing unobstructed visibility in auditoriums
4.13.2. Ensuring unobstructed visibility in auditoriums
4.14. Calculation of unobstructed visibility in auditoriums
Control questions
Basic terms and definitions
Bibliography
Applications.

Architectural science cannot be understood as only the beauty and grace of forms, proportions and lines, art historical research on the patterns of compositional relationships, disputes about the tectonic essence of forms and the history of the creation of architectural masterpieces, which became such precisely because their creators understood: the expressiveness of architecture depends on natural environmental parameters.
Ph.D., architect N.V. Obolensky
The performance qualities of buildings and individual premises are determined not only by their size, quality of finish, etc. An important factor is the degree of protection from external influences, such as cold or excessive heat, precipitation, noise. The premises must be exposed (or not exposed) for a certain time to direct sunlight, have sufficient lighting, and a favorable acoustic climate. Correct consideration of these factors ensures a state of the artificial living environment that is perceived by a person as comfortable.
These questions are considered by building physics, which includes several areas. The main ones are construction heating engineering(heat transfer in enclosing structures, their vapor and air permeability, temperature and humidity conditions of the premises), construction lighting equipment(natural and artificial lighting of premises, insolation and solar radiation), building acoustics(sound insulation and room acoustics). Knowledge of these issues allows the architect to correctly select the type of enclosing structure, the number and size of openings, the orientation of the building to the cardinal points, the shape of the auditorium, provide measures for noise protection, etc.

Concept of building climatology

The territory of Russia is characterized by a variety of natural and climatic conditions. The entire territory of the former USSR for construction is divided into 4 climatic regions (I – IV), each of which has several subdistricts. Their general characteristics are given in SNiP 2.01.01‑82 “Building climatology and geophysics”, as well as in SNiP 2.01.07‑85 “Loads and impacts”.
The most severe climatic conditions are in region I (70% of the territory of the USSR - the north and northeast of Siberia and the European part of the country, the Urals, continental territories and coastal parts of the Arctic Ocean and northern seas). It is characterized by a long cold period (7-9 months a year) with low temperatures (up to –50, –60°C), strong winds in coastal subregions, snowstorms, long polar night (north of the Arctic Circle), and permafrost. This determines the “closed” lifestyle of the population with a longer stay indoors than in other areas, and a greater degree of isolation of buildings from the influences of the external environment.
Climatic regions II and III (middle zone) are characterized by a temperate climate with approximately equal cold and warm periods with moderate positive and negative temperatures and other climatic indicators. These are the areas of the most populated part of the country. The lifestyle here is more “open”. Adults and children can stay outside buildings for long periods of time at all times of the year.
The southern regions (IV and partly III) are characterized by a long warm period (up to 9 months a year), high positive summer temperatures and various features of the microclimates of the subregions: coastal, hot steppe and semi-desert areas with sandstorms, humid and hot subtropics, mountainous, etc. d. Here the population widely uses various summer premises and courtyards. For buildings, protection from overheating by solar radiation, sudden daily temperature changes, excessive humidity, etc. is essential.
The most important components of the climate that you need to know before starting design are data on the following natural and climatic factors:
Direct and diffuse solar radiation– the main factors are bactericidal and temperature effects. This data is taken into account:

• when choosing the location and orientation of a building on a site, allowing one to determine the duration and intensity of insolation of premises at different times of the year, as well as the degree of insolation of adjacent areas;
• when calculating walls and roofings of buildings for heat resistance in the hot summer months;
• when choosing architectural, planning and structural sun protection measures that eliminate overheating of premises in the summer months;
• when choosing ventilation and air conditioning systems.

Ultraviolet radiation– the main factor is the bactericidal effect. Taken into account:

• when designing fotariums - rooms in which short-term sources of ultraviolet radiation are created, which is necessary in the northern zone and when people spend a long time in rooms with insufficient natural light;
• when choosing the designs of windows and lanterns, when calculating natural ultraviolet irradiation penetrating into the premises of medical buildings, children's institutions, etc.;
• when choosing façade cladding and interior finishing that increase the saturation of rooms with direct, diffuse and reflected ultraviolet radiation.

Natural outdoor light– taken into account:

• when choosing the types, sizes and locations of windows and lanterns in accordance with the requirements of the SNiP chapter “Natural and artificial lighting”;
• when determining the time of use of natural light in premises, which allows in some cases to motivate the refusal of natural light (auditorium, utility room);
• when choosing the type of lighting (natural, artificial or combined), designing artificial light installations (imitation of natural lighting in brightness and spectrum).

Temperature and humidity of outside air. Data on their annual dynamics are used:

• when choosing a space-planning solution for a building (in cold areas, a more compact layout and development is preferable);
• when selecting and calculating elements of enclosing structures (walls, coverings, filling openings) according to thermal technical requirements;
• when calculating heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems;
• during strength calculations of structures for temperature effects.

Prevailing wind direction, speed and pressure taken into account:

• when the building is located on the site to eliminate intensive cooling of the premises due to the air permeability of walls and windows;
• when determining the design and location of windows and skylights, which usually have increased air permeability;
• when calculating the aeration of premises and territories;
• in strength calculations of building structures.

Wind speed is defined as the horizontal component of the average air flow speed at a height of 10-15 m from the ground. When designing high-rise structures, the increase in wind speed with height should be taken into account.
The direction of the wind is determined by the part of the horizon from which the air flow is moving.
The average wind speed along the horizon and the frequency of wind directions in (%) are the main characteristics of the wind in the development area. In the design process, a graphical representation of wind characteristics is often used in the form of a special diagram - a “wind rose”, which provides data on the frequency and speed of wind in a given area for a certain period.
Amount of precipitation in summer and winter. This data is required:

• when designing the location of a building on a site, in order to eliminate large snow formation on the territory and roof;
• when choosing the shape and location of lanterns that do not contribute to the retention of snow on the roof;
• when designing cornices and gutters for quick removal of storm and melt water;
• when developing methods for removing snow from the roof;
• when choosing cladding for the façade of a building, filling openings taking into account their water resistance (in the Far Eastern Primorye, the amount of precipitation falling on vertical surfaces can be 3 times higher than falling on horizontal surfaces - “oblique” rains);
• in strength calculations of structures. The density of snow (140-360 kg/m3) depends on the height of the snow cover, the duration of its occurrence, wind speed, and air temperature. Periods with positive air temperatures significantly increase the density.

Data on the main climatic factors are determined by processing long-term measurements of weather stations based on methods of mathematical statistics.

Construction heating engineering

The optimal state of the indoor air environment in terms of temperature, humidity and cleanliness is ensured by a set of measures: the location of the building in the building, the compliance of its space-planning solution with natural and climatic conditions, heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems and the choice of design of external fences that provide the necessary thermal protection of the premises. The latter is carried out using construction heating engineering methods.
Construction heating engineering is based on the general theory of heat and mass transfer processes. External enclosing structures are considered in these processes as open systems that exchange thermal energy (heat exchange) and matter (moisture and air exchange) with the external environment.
When designing buildings, the following thermal engineering problems are solved:

• Ensuring the required level of thermal protection of external enclosing structures in winter.
• Providing a temperature level on the inner surface of the fence that does not allow condensation to form.
• Ensuring the fencing is heat resistant during the summer months.
• Creation of a drying humidity regime for external fences.
• Limitation of air permeability of enclosing structures.

Heat transfer in building envelopes

A necessary condition for heat transfer in any medium is the temperature difference at different points in the medium. Thermal energy spreads from points with a higher temperature to points with a lower one. External enclosing structures separate environments with different temperatures, which causes heat transfer processes in them.
There are three types of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Since most building materials are capillary-porous bodies, all types of heat transfer are possible in them. However, in practical calculations it is usually assumed that heat transfer within building materials occurs according to the laws of thermal conductivity. Heat transfer by convection and radiation occurs in air layers and near the surfaces of structures at the boundaries with external and internal air.
In thermal engineering calculations, it is customary to distinguish between homogeneous (single-layer) and layered (multilayer) enclosing structures, consisting respectively of one or several homogeneous flat layers located perpendicular to the direction of heat flow (usually parallel to the outer and inner surfaces of the structure), as well as heterogeneous structures that have different thermal conductivity characteristics over the enclosure area.

Stationary heat transfer conditions (one-dimensional heat flow)

Thermal conductivity of materials

Through a flat and sufficiently extended structure (so that edge effects can be neglected), the heat flow passes perpendicular to its surface in the direction from a higher temperature to a lower one.

Material	l, W/(m× ° WITH)	Material	l, W/(m× ° WITH)
Aluminum		Expanded polystyrene
Reinforced concrete
Brickwork ordinary		Air (in closed pores up to 1 mm in size)
Mineral wool mats		Air (in cavities measuring 15 cm)

Building materials consist of a solid phase, as well as pores and capillaries, which are filled with air, water vapor or liquid. The ratio and nature of these elements determine the thermal conductivity of the material.
Metals have high thermal conductivity, as it is determined by the flow of electrons. The higher the electrical conductivity, the higher the thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivity of stone materials is due to thermal vibrations of the structure. The heavier the atoms of this structure and the weaker they are connected to each other, the lower the thermal conductivity. Stones with a crystalline structure are more thermally conductive than glassy ones.
The thermal conductivity coefficient of capillary-porous materials depends on their average density (porosity) and moisture state. In this case, the average pore size and their nature (open, connected or closed) also play a role. Porous materials with closed pores of small (1 mm) size have lower thermal conductivity. As the moisture content of a material increases, its thermal conductivity increases. This is especially noticeable in winter, when the water contained in the pores freezes.
Changes in the thermal conductivity coefficients of building materials with changes in moisture content are so significant that their values ​​are set depending on the humidity characteristics of the climate and the humidity conditions of the premises. SNiP distinguishes 3 humidity zones (wet, normal and dry) and 4 indoor humidity conditions:

Based on the combination of the humidity zone and the humidity regime of the premises, the operating conditions of the enclosing structures (A or B) are assigned, depending on which the thermal conductivity coefficients are selected.
Materials used for thermal insulation layers of enclosing structures should, as a rule, have a dry thermal conductivity coefficient of no higher than 0.3 W/m×°C.

Features of thermal engineering calculations of heterogeneous enclosing structures

Real enclosing structures are usually heterogeneous in terms of thermal engineering, since they have openings, corners, joints, and heat-conducting inclusions.
For example, the temperature in the outer corner of the wall is significantly (4-7 °C) lower than the temperature of the inner surface of the wall section distant from the corner. This is explained by the fact that the heat absorption area is significantly smaller than the heat transfer area on the one hand, and a decrease in the heat absorption coefficient (due to a decrease in radiant heat transfer and weakening of convection air currents) on the other. This drop in temperature can lead to dampness in the corners. To prevent this, additional insulation or placement of heating risers in the corners is required.
The temperature in such areas varies not only along the thickness of the structure, but also along its length or height, that is, the change is not one-dimensional. With a steady heat flow, the temperature distribution in such places is determined by solving the differential equation of thermal conductivity (Laplace’s equation)

Heat transfer under unsteady conditions

The calculations outlined earlier are based on the constancy of temperatures on the outer and inner sides of the fence, as a result of which a steady heat flow passes through it. In real conditions this is rarely observed. The outside air temperature constantly fluctuates, the indoor temperature changes (especially in buildings with intermittent heating), and in the summer the outer surface is also heated due to solar radiation. All this introduces errors into thermophysical calculations under steady-state conditions. Therefore, in some cases it is necessary to perform calculations under unsteady heat transfer conditions.

Thermal resistance of enclosing structures

The thermal insulation qualities of enclosing structures used in hot areas (with average monthly temperatures) are assessed by thermal resistance. This is the property of the structure to maintain a relative constant temperature on the surface facing the room during fluctuations in heat flow. This is one of the conditions for the comfort of a person’s stay in the room.

A quantitative assessment of thermal stability is carried out by attenuation of temperature fluctuations in the structure. The attenuation value is calculated as the ratio of the amplitude of temperature fluctuations on the surface that directly perceives the temperature effect to the amplitude on the opposite surface.

Air permeability of fences

Another property characterizing the thermal properties of a structure is its air permeability. Penetration (filtration) of air through the fence occurs due to the difference in pressure of warm and cold air (thermal pressure), as well as as a result of wind pressure.
The air permeability of materials is characterized air permeability coefficient, which determines the amount of air in kg passing through 1 m2 of material 1 m thick during a unit of time at a pressure difference of 1 Pa - i [kg/m×h×Pa].

Humidity regime of enclosing structures

As the humidity of materials increases, their thermal conductivity increases. This leads to a decrease in the heat transfer resistance of the enclosing structures. To preserve their heat-shielding properties, measures should be taken to prevent possible moisture.
In general, increasing the humidity of structures is undesirable for many reasons. From a hygienic point of view damp structures are a source of increased humidity in rooms, which negatively affects people’s well-being. Wet materials provide a favorable environment for the development of microorganisms, which causes a number of diseases. From a technical point of view In view, wet materials are quickly destroyed due to the expansion of moisture upon freezing in pores and capillaries, corrosion (metal oxidation, leaching of lime from solutions), and biological processes.

Causes of moisture in structures

Construction moisture is caused by wet processes in the production of building structures (brick laying with mortars, heat and moisture treatment of reinforced concrete products). In properly designed structures, this moisture is established within acceptable limits during the first years of the building's life.
Ground moisture penetrates into the structure as a result of capillary suction when the waterproofing is damaged. Depending on the structure of the material, capillary moisture can rise to a height of 2.5-10 m.
Atmospheric moisture in the form of slanting rain in the wind or frost falling on the outer surface, it moistens the structure to a depth of several centimeters.
Operating moisture moisturizes parts of the walls adjacent to the floor when washing floors or spilling process liquids.
The last three types of moisture in structures can be eliminated or sharply reduced by constructive measures.
Hygroscopic moisture– a consequence of the sorption property of capillary-porous materials to absorb moisture from the air (hygroscopicity). The degree of hygroscopic humidification is predetermined by the temperature and humidity conditions of the environment. For enclosing structures operated in aggressive environments, the hygroscopicity of materials increases 4-5 times due to an increase in the content of water-soluble compounds.
Condensation moisture is caused by deviations in the temperature and humidity parameters of the indoor air environment and is most often the cause of waterlogging of the structure. Moisture condensation can occur both on the surface of the structure and in its thickness during the diffusion of water vapor.
Hygroscopic and condensation humidification can be stabilized by rational design of the fence based on thermal engineering calculations.

Absolute and relative air humidity

Atmospheric air always contains some moisture in the form of vapor. The amount of moisture in grams contained in 1 m3 of air is called absolute humidity f [g/m3]. For calculations, it is more convenient to estimate the amount of water vapor in units of pressure. For this purpose, the partial pressure of water vapor e [Pa] or [mm] is used. Hg Art.], called actual pressure of water vapor.
Actual elasticity increases with increasing absolute air humidity, but cannot increase indefinitely. At a certain temperature and barometric air pressure, there is absolute humidity limit value air F [g/m3], corresponding to complete saturation of air with water vapor. Further humidity cannot increase under the same conditions. This value corresponds to maximum water vapor pressure E [Pa] or [mm. Hg Art.], also called the saturation pressure of water vapor.
With increasing air temperature, the limiting values ​​of humidity (E and F) increase; therefore, absolute humidity f and partial pressure e do not give an idea of ​​​​the degree of saturation of the air with moisture unless its temperature is indicated.

Relative humidity determines:

• the intensity of moisture evaporation from moistened surfaces (in particular, from the surface of the human body);
• the process of moisture absorption by building materials (sorption process);
• the process of moisture condensation in the air and on the surface of structures.

When the air temperature with a given moisture content (e=const) increases, the relative humidity decreases, as the value of the maximum water vapor pressure E increases. As the temperature decreases, the relative humidity increases, as E decreases. As the temperature decreases, at a certain value, the maximum elasticity becomes equal to the actual water vapor pressure e. In this case, j=100% and the state of complete saturation of the air with water vapor occurs. The temperature corresponding to this moment is called dew point temperature tr for a given air humidity. When the temperature drops below the dew point, the maximum and actual elasticity will decrease, remaining equal, and excess moisture will condense, that is, turn into a droplet-liquid state.
In winter, a thin layer of air directly adjacent to the inner surface of the enclosing structure is cooled to its temperature, which can reach the dew point. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure such a temperature on the inner surface that tв>tр.
The temperature in the outer corners of the premises, on the surface of heat-conducting inclusions, is usually lower than in other areas of the fence. So for Tula, the temperature near the outer corner is 4-6 °C lower than far from it. Therefore, the possibility of condensation formation should, first of all, be checked for such places, providing, if necessary, measures to increase their temperature (additional insulation, placement of heating risers...).

Diffusion of water vapor through the building envelope

In the cold season, the outer enclosing structure of a heated building separates two air environments with the same barometric pressure, but with different temperatures and water vapor pressures. Even at higher relative humidity, cold outside air contains less water vapor than warm indoor air. That is, the partial pressure of water vapor inside the room will be significantly greater than the outside pressure. Their difference for residential buildings reaches significant values: 1.2-1.3 kPa, and for buildings with elevated temperature and humidity it can be significantly higher.
Under the influence of the difference in partial pressures, a flow of water vapor appears, directed from the inner surface to the outer - water vapor diffusion.

The vapor permeability coefficient m reflects the ability of the material to transmit diffusing water vapor. It is numerically equal to the amount of moisture in mg that diffuses per unit time through a layer of material 1 m thick with an area of ​​1 m2 at a partial pressure difference on the surface of the layer of 1 Pa [mg/(m×h×Pa)].
Of the building materials, mineral wool slabs have the highest vapor permeability coefficient (up to 0.6 mg/(m×h×Pa)), and the lowest are roofing felt (0.0014), linoleum (0.002), bitumen roofing materials (0.008 mg/(m× h×Pa)).
If the indoor air has high humidity or the enclosure structure is not designed correctly, diffusing water vapor may condense inside the enclosure structure. It is believed that the plane of possible condensation is located at a distance equal to 2/3 of the thickness of a homogeneous structure and coincides with the outer surface of the insulation in a multilayer structure. To prevent this phenomenon:

• the vapor permeation resistance Rp of the fence in the range from the inner surface to the plane of possible condensation must be no less than the required value, which is established by SNiP. To do this, it is recommended to make the inner layers of the fence from denser materials, placing the insulation closer to the outer surface. In addition to making it difficult for water vapor to reach colder layers, this provides better conditions for removing moisture from the structure in the warmer months.
• to protect the insulation from moisture in external buildings, a vapor barrier should be provided (below the thermal insulation layer);
• it is necessary to provide a vapor barrier for heat-insulating seals at the joints of elements of enclosing structures on the premises side;
• it is also necessary to provide constructive measures to protect fences from wetting directly by droplet liquid moisture (precipitation, operational sources) - waterproofness or hydrophobicity of surfaces (plaster, painting with waterproof compounds), proper design and sealing of joints, etc.;
• with constant humidification, ventilated air layers can be provided.

Let us briefly summarize the general requirements for enclosing structures from the point of view of building thermal physics, and formulate some recommendations arising from these requirements.

• The resistance of the enclosing structure to heat transfer must be no less than the required value. This also applies to filling windows, balcony doors and lanterns.

• provide space-planning solutions taking into account ensuring the smallest area of ​​enclosing structures;
• rooms with low temperatures (corridors, staircases, storerooms...) should be located along the outer perimeter in the part of the building facing north or towards the prevailing winds in winter;
• plan warm rooms with a minimal external perimeter, placing them to the south and west;
• in the lower part of the building, to reduce heat loss into the ground, place rooms with low temperatures (shops, workshops, warehouses...);
• Low and wide rooms are more favorable in terms of temperature compared to high and narrow ones;
• when planning rooms, you should avoid installing parts protruding outward (narrow and deep bay windows, for example);
• loggias, on the contrary, create a more favorable temperature regime in adjacent rooms.
• The area of ​​light openings should be assigned in accordance with the normalized value of the natural light coefficient. In this case, the area of ​​windows with a reduced heat transfer resistance of less than 0.56 m2×°C/W in relation to the total area of ​​the external walls should be no more than 18%.
• In hot areas for a number of types of buildings (in particular residential, see above), the amplitude of temperature fluctuations of the internal surface of enclosing structures should be no more than the standard value.
• In the same areas and types of buildings, sun protection devices must be provided for windows and lanterns, the thermal transmittance of which should not exceed the standard value.
• The floor surface of residential and public buildings, auxiliary buildings and premises of industrial enterprises and heated premises of industrial buildings (in areas with permanent workplaces) must have a heat absorption rate of no more than the standard value. Floors on the ground must be insulated in the area adjacent to the external walls, 0.8 m wide.
• The air permeability resistance of enclosing structures must be no less than required. This also applies to filling windows and balcony doors, as well as lanterns.
• The above requirements for vapor permeability of enclosing structures must be met (see previous paragraph).
• To protect against moisture from ground moisture, waterproofing of the walls should be provided: horizontal - in the walls above the blind area, as well as below the floor level of the basement or basement floor; vertical - the underground part of the walls, taking into account hydrogeological conditions and the purpose of the premises.

Construction lighting equipment

Corbusier put the sun in first place among the materials and means with which the architect deals.

Tasks of building lighting technology

Light plays a vital role in human life. It participates in ensuring the normal psychophysiological state of a person; creates illumination of the workplace, making it possible to perform any work; natural light has healing and bactericidal properties. The rhythm of natural light dictates the way people live. Natural and artificial lighting also influence the architectural and artistic qualities of buildings.
Along with this, lighting requires significant costs: the high cost of glazing (and artificial light sources), the cost of cleaning and repairing light openings, and heat loss through them led to the fact that sometimes industrial buildings (and in some countries even schools) were built without natural light.
In this regard the main task of building lighting technology is the study of the conditions that determine the creation of an optimal light regime in rooms and the development of architectural and constructive measures that ensure this regime.
Room lighting can be

• natural, the sources of which are direct, scattered (diffuse) and reflected sunlight;
• artificial (source - incandescent, fluorescent, mercury, xenon, etc.);
• and combined, when the room is simultaneously illuminated by natural and artificial sources.

Optimal light conditions in the premises are achieved

• correct consideration of the light climate of the construction site;
• the correct choice of size, shape and color decoration of the premises;
• correct choice of shape, size and position of light openings;
• correct placement and choice of power and emission spectrum of artificial light sources.

The concept of optimal light conditions for a room includes:

• ensuring the required level of illumination of workplaces;
• uniformity of illumination;
• elimination of directed direct and reflected light that blinds people;
• ensuring sufficient brightness of the surrounding space due to the level of illumination and color finishing of the interior.

The tasks of designing indoor lighting are solved jointly by architects, civil engineers and lighting engineers.

Daylight

As a rule, rooms with constant occupancy should have natural lighting. Without natural light, it is allowed to design premises approved by the relevant regulatory documents, as well as premises the placement of which is allowed in the basement and ground floors.
Natural lighting is divided into side, top and combined. Side lighting can be one-sided or two-sided.

Illumination in a room can be achieved due to direct scattered (diffuse) light from the sky and due to light reflected from the internal surfaces of the room, opposing buildings and the surface adjacent to the building. Illumination can also be provided by reflected light only.

Basic lighting concepts and laws

To standardize natural illumination in rooms, it is not advisable to use absolute illumination values. External, and accordingly internal, illumination is constantly changing. In addition, a person evaluates illumination not so much by its absolute value, but by the comparative levels of brightness of objects and surfaces. Thus, to assess natural illumination, it is typical to compare the brightness of internal surfaces with the brightness of the external space visible through the light opening.

Insolation of premises and territories. Sun protection

Insolation and its regulation

Insolation - exposure to direct sunlight - has great health benefits. Light and ultraviolet irradiation have a strengthening effect on humans and a bactericidal effect on microorganisms. Therefore, design standards regulate the minimum duration of insolation of premises and territories. Insolation calculations are a mandatory section of pre-project and design documentation.
Standardization of insolation of premises
The duration of insolation is regulated in: residential buildings; children's preschool institutions; educational institutions of general education, primary, secondary, additional and vocational education, boarding schools, orphanages, etc.; medical and preventive, sanatorium and health resort institutions; social security institutions (boarding homes for the disabled and elderly, hospices, etc.).
The normalized duration of continuous insolation for premises of residential and public buildings is established differentially depending on the type of apartments, the functional purpose of the premises, planning zones of the city, geographic latitude - for the zones:
northern (north of 58° N) - at least 2.5 hours a day from April 22 to August 22;
central (58° N - 48° N) - at least 2 hours a day from March 22 to September 22;
southern (south of 48° N) - at least 1.5 hours a day from February 22 to October 22.
Residential buildings:
In residential buildings, the standard duration of insolation must be ensured: in one-, two- and three-room apartments - in at least one room, in four-room apartments and more - in at least two rooms. In dormitories - in at least 60% of residential rooms.
Intermittent insolation is allowed, but the duration of one of the periods must be at least 1 hour, and the total duration must exceed the standard by 0.5 hours.
The standards allow a reduction in the duration of insolation by 0.5 hours for the northern and central zones in two-room and three-room apartments, where at least two rooms are insolated; in four-room or more rooms, where at least three rooms are insolated; as well as during the reconstruction of residential buildings located in the central, historical zones of cities, defined by their master development plans.
Public buildings:
The normalized duration of insolation is established in the main functional premises of the above public buildings. Such premises include:
in preschool institutions - group, play, isolation wards and wards;
in educational buildings - classrooms and classrooms;
in medical institutions - wards (at least 60% of the total number);
in social security institutions - wards, isolation wards.
In mixed-use buildings (orphanages, children's homes, boarding schools, forest schools, sanatorium schools, etc.), insolation is standardized in functional premises similar to those listed above.
Insolation is not required in pathology departments; operating rooms, intensive care rooms of hospitals, vivariums, veterinary hospitals; chemical laboratories; exhibition halls of museums; book depositories and archives.
The absence of insolation is allowed in the classrooms of computer science, physics, chemistry, drawing and drawing.
Standardization of insolation of territories
In the territories of children's playgrounds, sports grounds of residential buildings; group sites of preschool institutions; sports zone, recreation area of ​​secondary schools and boarding schools; recreation areas of stationary health care facilities, the duration of insolation should be at least 3 hours on 50% of the site area, regardless of geographic latitude.

Parameters affecting the duration and quality of insolation

The duration of insolation of an open area for each area is determined by the time of visible movement of the sun across the sky. The trajectory of the sun and the period of daily insolation for each geographic latitude and each season are different: in northern latitudes the trajectory is flatter and longer, in southern latitudes it is steeper and shorter.
The days characterizing insolation for different periods of the year are considered to be the days of the summer solstice (June 22, the highest trajectory of the sun at each geographic latitude), winter solstice (December 22, the lowest trajectory), spring (March 22) and autumn (September 22) equinox. On equinox days, the duration of insolation in an open area is 12 hours.
In the early morning and late evening hours, the sun's rays cross a larger layer of the atmosphere, and their healing effect weakens. Therefore, insolation calculations usually do not take into account the first and last hours at sunrise and sunset. For areas north of 60° N latitude. The first and last 1.5 hours are not taken into account.

The horizontal angle of the sun's position is determined by the azimuth AQ, i.e. the angle between the meridian plane and the direction of the sun. Azimuth is measured from the north direction clockwise 1 in degrees. The elevation of the sun above the horizon is measured by the vertical angle hQ.
In this regard, there is no unity in the literature. Sometimes the azimuth is measured from the south direction clockwise (west) from 0 to 360° or in two directions - west and east from 0 to 180° with the designation “southwest” and “southeast”.

The duration of daily insolation is often determined using solar maps constructed for different latitudes (graphs by B.A. Dunaev). They are marked with ring coordinates, representing the elevation of the sun, and radial coordinates, characterizing the azimuths of the sun. The maps show trajectories of the sun for characteristic periods of the year, divided by hours of the day. In addition to Dunaev’s graphs, the insolation graph (ruler) and the light planer D.S. are often used. Maslennikova and others.
The standard duration of insolation is determined by the placement and orientation of buildings on the sides of the horizon, their space-planning solutions, the presence of protruding elements, etc.
The method for determining the duration of insolation is presented in practical classes.

Harmful effects of insolation and their prevention

Insolation can be accompanied by overheating of premises due to excess thermal radiation and the tiring effect of sunlight due to the shine of enclosing structures and equipment. Therefore, in some cases, insolation is not allowed (book depositories, hot shops, rooms for preparing and storing food) or should be limited. SNiP “Public Buildings” establishes, for example, that the orientation of the windows of operating rooms and intensive care rooms should be taken to the north, northeast and northwest, which makes it easier to create an optimal microclimate in these rooms.
The most important means of combating excess insolation are:

• reducing the area of ​​light openings;
• space-planning solutions for buildings;
• landscaping products (for one- and two-story buildings);
• correct orientation of buildings to the cardinal directions;
• the use of ventilated enclosing structures (from overheating);
• use of sun protection devices.

The design standards for residential buildings determine that in areas with an average July temperature of 21 ° C and above, light openings in living rooms and kitchens, oriented in the horizon sector of 200-290 °, must be equipped with external adjustable sun protection.
For public buildings located in the same areas, in rooms with constant occupancy of people and in rooms where, due to technological or hygienic requirements, the penetration of sunlight or overheating of the room is not allowed, openings oriented within the 130-315° sector are equipped with sun protection.
The main requirements for sun protection devices are:

• limiting the insolation of the premises at specified hours during a certain period of the year;
• maximum light reflection and light scattering;
• minimum heat capacity;
• ensuring air circulation horizontally and vertically parallel to the plane of the wall.

Sun protection devices are divided into stationary and adjustable.

	Position	Action	Light-protective effect	Application area
Horizontal or inclined continuous visors	Above the windows outside		At high solstice
Same with the louvered grille.		The same, + good air washing
Vertical ribs-screens normal or at an angle to the plane of the wall	Next to the window openings on one side		At low solstice
Remote wall-screens	Above window openings and on the sides	The same, + protection against overheating of the wall itself	Unlimited	Unlimited
Louvre grilles with vertical, inclined or horizontal slats	In front of light openings or inside them	Limiting or eliminating insolation
Light diffusers	Along the entire plane of the facade	Same thing, but worse air exchange
Special types of glazing:	Filling light openings
light-scattering		Light scattering
reflective		Reflection of infrared rays
light-absorbing		Absorption of infrared rays
Movable blinds, awnings, canopies	Outside or inside light openings	Limiting or eliminating insolation
Stamped spatial grids	Inside the glazing
Hanging curtains	Indoors

Sun protection devices significantly affect the overall illumination: in sunny weather, light scattering by surfaces can significantly increase the CEC, and in cloudy weather, it can significantly reduce it. This influence should be taken into account when calculating room illumination.

The textbook examines the theoretical foundations for the formation of a comfortable light-color, thermal and acoustic environment in cities and buildings. Methods of standardization, calculation and design of enclosing structures, lighting, insolation, sun protection, color schemes, acoustics, sound insulation of buildings and combating urban and industrial noise are outlined. For students of architectural universities and faculties.

Preface.5

Introduction. The subject and place of architectural physics in the creative method of the architect... 7

Part I. Architectural climatology. . 12

Chapter 1. Climate and architecture...12

Chapter 2. Climatic analysis.15

Part II. Architectural lightology..46

Chapter 3. The light-color environment is the basis for the perception of architecture.46

3.1. Light, vision and architecture..46

3.2. Basic quantities, units and laws...63

Chapter 4. Architectural lighting..71

4.1. Natural lighting systems for rooms..73

4.2. Light climate. 87

4.3. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of lighting.96

4.4. Standardization of natural lighting in premises.99

4.5. Calculation of natural lighting of premises.110

4.6. Optical theory of natural light field..121

4.7. Artificial light sources and lighting devices...129

4.8. Standardization and design of artificial lighting.158

4.9. Combined room lighting.173

4.10. Standardization and design of city lighting..177

4.11. Modeling of architectural lighting. 196

Chapter 5. Insolation and sun protection in architecture.205

5.1. Basic concepts...205

5.2. Standardization and design of building insolation.209

5.3. Sun protection and light regulation in cities and buildings..219

5.4. Insolation modeling. 238

5.5. Economic efficiency of insolation regulation

And sun protection.242

Chapter 6. Architectural color science. . 244

6.1. Basic concepts...244

6.2. Systematization of colors. Colorimetric system MKO... 254

6.3. Color reproduction...258

6.4. Standardization and color design.. 266

Part III. Architectural acoustics 286

Chapter 7. Sound environment in urban publications.286

7.1. Basic concepts...286

7.2. Sound and hearing.292

7.3. Basic laws of propagation of sound and noise. 297

Chapter 8. Noise protection and sound insulation in cities and buildings..304

8.1. Noise sources and their characteristics.304

8.2. Standardization of noise and sound insulation of fences..313

8.3. Design of noise protection and sound insulation.321

8.4. Modeling of noise protection and sound insulation.364

8.5. Technical and economic efficiency of noise protection and sound insulation measures. . . 366

Chapter 9. Acoustics of halls..368

9.1. Main acoustic characteristics of the halls.371

9.2. Assessment of the acoustic quality of halls.378

9.3. General principles of acoustic design of halls.384

9.4. Halls for speech programs. 398

9.5. Halls for music programs..404

9.6. Halls with a combination of speech and music programs..411

9.7. Modeling the acoustics of halls. . 418

9.8. Hall sound systems..425

Applications..430

Subject index.438

PREFACE

The textbook on architectural physics is being published under this title for the first time and is a development of the textbook “Fundamentals of Structural Physics”, published in 1975 by prof. N. M. Gusev, founder of the Department of Building Physics of the Moscow Architectural Institute.

The new name of the textbook and department is not accidental. The relevance of the problem of greening modern architecture is now recognized throughout the world, and since light, color, climate and sound are the main factors that shape the comfort of the artificial environment (architecture), which fits into the natural environment (nature), this problem is of great importance for the development of a qualitatively new stage in capital construction and mass urbanization.

Therefore, the need for greening higher architectural education is natural. Essentially, architectural physics is the second part of a new discipline that a modern architect must study - Architectural Ecology. The first part of this discipline - “Architectural Environmental Management” (“Environmental Protection”) includes the basics of protecting living and inanimate nature from the impact of urban human activity, which has now become global in nature, which is of acute concern throughout the world.

Architectural physics studies the theoretical foundations and practical methods of shaping architecture under the influence of sunlight and artificial light, color, heat, air movement and sound, as well as the nature of their perception by humans with an assessment of sociological, hygienic and economic factors.

In addition, this science is the foundation on which the most important provisions of the main construction documents are based - SNiPs, which regulate the comfort, density and efficiency of development.

Architectural physics as a part of architectural ecology (and now one of the most important and obligatory parts of the project is its environmental section) directly helps to determine the quality of the project at all stages (and therefore the quality of architecture) according to several main groups of criteria¹: 1) comfort of urban spaces and interiors buildings and their functionality; 2) reliability (durability) of structures; 3) expressiveness (composition, light-color image, scale, plasticity, etc.); 4) economic efficiency (especially in industrial construction).

All these criteria are largely predetermined during design by professionally taking into account the light-climatic and acoustic parameters of the environment and building elements.

Consequently, architectural physics has the most direct connections with the core disciplines - “Architectural Design”, “Theory, History and Criticism of Architecture” and “Architectural Structures”, as well as with the system of state examination of projects. Architectural physics is at the intersection of sciences such as astronomy, meteorology and climatology, and since architecture serves to ensure human life and represents the main material and cultural funds of any country, this science is closely related to hygiene, aesthetics, psychology, sociology and economics.

The content of the textbook corresponds to the current level of development of this science and takes into account many years of experience in its teaching at the Moscow Architectural Institute, discussions held in recent years in scientific publications in our country and abroad, government regulations on environmental and urban planning issues and programs of the Russian Academy of Sciences on biosphere and environmental issues. research.

Each of the main parts of the textbook provides examples of designing a comfortable environment from domestic and foreign architectural and urban planning practice.

Studying the course is accompanied by students performing educational research work related to the architectural design of cities and buildings. To adapt the calculation work to the real conditions of the creative work of an architect, the textbook provides graphic, tabular and reference materials.

The main sections of the textbook end with lists of references, with the help of which undergraduate and graduate students can expand their knowledge and master methods of research work in architectural physics.

The textbook uses current regulatory documents and the results of the latest research by domestic and foreign scientists in the field of architecture, urban planning, architectural physics and ecology.

The preface, introduction and chapters 3 and 5 were written by N.V. Obolensky, chapters 1 and 2 - V.K. Litskevich, chapter 4 - N.V. Obolensky and N.I. Shchepetkov, chapter 6 - I.V. Migalina, chapters 7 and 8 - A.G. Osipov, chapter 9 -L. I. Makrinenko.

¹ By analogy with Vitruvius’ criteria “usefulness, strength, beauty” (note that even Vitruvius speaks of the beauty of a building only after use and strength).

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