"Poseidon from Cape Artemision" or "God from Cape Artemision"- a bronze original of an antique Hellenistic Greek statue of the 5th century. BC BC, found in 1926 by sponge divers in the Aegean Sea at Cape Artemision (Greek) Russian(in the north of the island of Euboea) together with the "Rider from Cape Artemision" in the area of the shipwreck and brought to the surface in 1928. The statue depicts an unidentified god, presumably Poseidon or Zeus, swinging to throw a weapon that has not survived to this day: a spear, a trident (Poseidon's attribute) or lightning (Zeus Keravnovol's attribute - "Throwing lightning"). The statue is one of the rare bronze originals that have survived to this day.
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| Poseidon from Cape Artemision... 460-450 biennium BC. | ||
| Bronze. Height 2.09 m | ||
| National Archaeological Museum, Athens | ||
| Images at Wikimedia Commons | ||
Find
Poseidon or Zeus
The most popular version was that the statue depicts Poseidon; but it is impossible to establish this, since the weapon that was in the hands of God has been lost. The problem with identifying the statue as a sea lord is that if he held the trident, the weapon would obscure the face and violate the profile line. Iconographic parallels with coins and vase paintings from the same era show that such a composition is extremely unlikely. However, the trident could be very short, which would solve the problem. On the other hand, an extensive series of smaller bronze figurines (dating from the late 7th century BC) that repeat the same pose and represent Zeus with a lightning bolt, have survived. So nowadays it is generally accepted that, most likely, this is an image of Zeus; however, opinions remain divided.
Description
The statue has empty eye sockets that were originally inlaid, possibly with ivory, the eyebrows were made of silver, the lips and nipples were made of copper. Among the possible authors of the statue are Agelada, Kalamida or Myron.
Notes (edit)
Literature
- Mylonas in American Journal of Archeology 48 (1944) pp 143ff. A case for the subject as Zeus.
- Mattusch, Carol C. 1988. Greek Bronze Statuary: From the Beginnings Through the Fifth Century B.C.(Ithaca: Cornell University Press) pp. 150-53.
- Gisela M.A. Richter, reviewing H. G. Beyen, La Statue d'Artemision in 35 .2 (April 1931), pp. 242-243; C. A. Robinson, Jr., "The Zeus Ithomatas of Ageladas", American Journal of Archeology 49 .2 (April 1945, pp. 121-127) p. 127, note 40.
- Karouzos, "Ho Poseidon tou Artemisiou" Deltion 13 (1930-31) pp 41-104, and "The find from the sea off Artemision", Journal of the Hellenic Society 49 (1929).
- John Boardman, "Greek art and architecture", in J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, eds. Greece and the Hellenistic World (Oxford History of the Classical World, vol. I), 1988, illus. p. 284.
Greek sculptors, like all ancient artists, the theme of the sea was never alien, since the temples of Poseidon were located not only in many coastal cities of Hellas, but even in the depths of the land (for example, in Arcadia and Boeotia). And every temple or sanctuary in ancient Greece, as you know, was decorated with a statue of a god or hero, for the sake of whose worship it was built. The temples of the sea lord were no exception. And although not so many sculptural images that stood in his sanctuaries have come down to us, the iconography of this deity, that is, a set of certain pictorial qualities that form the whole idea of this image, is quite stable in this case.
We recognize Poseidon, first of all, by his attributes: a trident, a dolphin, an image of parts of a ship or its equipment - an anchor or an oar, and also, however, this is not often found, a wreath on his head, as a rule, from pine branches. This is probably due to the fact that the famous Isthmian Games - sports in honor of Poseidon, were held on the Isthma (an isthmus that connected the Peloponnesian Peninsula with mainland Greece) in a pine grove and a wreath of pine branches was an award to the winner. However, if the attributes indicated only the functions of the depicted character, then his divine essence was evidenced, first of all, by an athletic perfect figure, a solemn pose, full of grandeur and dignity, and a noble stern face. This is how Poseidon appears before us in the creations of the masters of the heyday of Greek culture.
The most widespread in ancient art were two types of statues - the so-called Lateran type, represented by a statue of Poseidon in the collection of the Lateran Museum in the Vatican, and the Melos type, named after a find on the island of Melos (dated to the end of the 2nd century BC, kept in the National Museum of Athens).
Roman work of the 2nd century. AD after a Greek original of the end of the 4th century. BC e. Marble. H. 80.0 cm
Saint Petersburg. HermitageThe first type, dating back to a Greek bronze original from the middle of the 4th century. BC, is distinguished by the characteristic stance of the figure of Poseidon, depicted nude: he stands with his right foot on the bow of the ship and leaning forward. With his left hand, the lord of the seas rests on a trident; its head, turned to the right, is slightly tilted downward. The second type is the Melossian, which spread from the 2nd century onwards. BC, demonstrates a direct positioning of the body and head. Poseidon wears a cloak that descends from his left shoulder to his back and covers his lower body. With his right hand raised up, he leans on a trident, in his left he holds a dolphin.
Eastern Mediterranean. II-I centuries BC. Silver. H. 6.5 cm
Saint Petersburg. HermitageRoman copyists, creating the statues of Neptune, actively used the Greek versions of Poseidon's images, supplementing the iconographic series with another one, close to the Melodic one, with the only difference that the figure of a dolphin with a high tail was placed at his right leg.
Statues of Poseidon were placed in his temples often along with other sculptures that personified the sea element. So, the Greek writer and traveler of the II century. Pausanias wrote that in Corinth, in the temple of Poseidon, “in a temple not very large in size, there are copper newts. On the threshold of the temple there are statues: two - Poseidon, the third - Amphitrite and one more - Thalassa (Sea), also copper "(Pausanias. II. I. 7).
Images of Poseidon-Neptune and his maritime surroundings were created by Greek and Roman sculptors not only in round sculpture or sculptural groups that stood freely in the open space, but also in relief sculpture, including on sarcophagi - Roman funerary monuments: together with his wife Amphitrite, he floats along waves in a chariot, harnessed to sea horses - hippocampus, and next to them are the newts and the daughters of the elder Nereus - the sea nymphs of the Nereids. In such scenes, Poseidon-Neptune was perceived in the minds of the viewer as a guide of the souls of the dead to the afterlife, where his brother Hades ruled.
Among the legends and myths associated with the sea, a special place is occupied by stories about the miraculous rescues of people or heroes during their voyage through the sea, when, for example, dolphins played the role of savior (the myth of Arion). We have also heard stories about the devoted friendship of dolphins and children: we know one of them in the transmission of the Roman writer of the 1st century BC. Pliny, Pausanias tells about something else: “... I myself saw a dolphin showing gratitude to the boy for the fact that he cured him when the fishermen wounded him; I saw this dolphin, how he obeyed the boy's call and carried it on him when he wanted to ride "(Pausanias. III. XXV. 7). It was these stories that inspired sculptors who created statuettes like the one shown in the exhibition (cat. 3). True, instead of a child riding a dolphin, Eros, the god of love, floats, but this is just a whim of the restorer of the 18th century, who supplemented the ancient figure of a child with the wings of the divine son of Aphrodite.
Roman work after Greek models of the 3rd century. BC. Marble. H. 87.0 cm
Saint Petersburg. HermitageConsidering that sculpture is the most ancient form of art, its connection with the cult in ancient times is inextricable. Perhaps the absolute majority of the surviving sculptures of the Stone Age are somehow connected with a cult and can be called "sculptures of the gods". Later, when totemism replaced animism, the sculptural images of the gods became clearer and more pronounced.
Sculptural images of pagan gods are most often made in stone or carved from wood. Unfortunately, there is not so much evidence of pagan culture on the territory of Russia. Most often, in the museums of our country there are only a few copies that are not very well preserved. Among them, the so-called Great Shigir idol, made in the 8th millennium BC, is especially valuable. The date is impressive as the sculpture is older than the figures of Egyptian gods, as well as sculptures from Mesopotamia.
Sculptures of Egyptian gods are known to everyone from pictures in school textbooks. The most monumental of them were once located in the temples of Luxor and Karnak, in the rocky temples of the Nile Valley. full of various statuettes and small sculptures of Anubis, Set, Horus, Isis, Osiris, etc. According to the Egyptian tradition, all sculptures are depicted either sitting or taking a step forward (a step into eternity). Ideally symmetrical faces, body proportions are strictly defined by the canon. Huge eyes (the Egyptians believed that one of the human souls lives in the eyes) make Egyptian sculptures expressive and spiritualized.
Perhaps it was ancient culture that gave world culture the most highly artistic sacred sculptures. It is worth mentioning two masterpieces of the great Phidias - sculptures of Athena Parthenos and Olympian Zeus. The second figure has survived only in marble copies, which give an idea only of the appearance of the sculpture, devoid of its former grandeur and realism. The originals of the statues of Athena and Zeus were made in a sophisticated chryso-elephantine technique (a wooden base covered with thin gold plates (hair, clothing and weapons) and thin ivory plates (naked body parts)). The use of ivory made the sculpture unusually realistic, conveying the texture of white, translucent skin of warm shades, and the golden sheen gave the majesty and the feeling of the boundless power of the gods.
Sculptures of antique gods decorate. you can see sculptures of Venus and Nike. Both sculptures were created in the second century BC. Different authors, different interpretations of images, different approaches. But the general harmony, plasticity and craftsmanship make these sculptures masterpieces of ancient sculpture.
The figure of the resting Hermes (National Museum of Naples) is interesting. Free, relaxed posture, pacification and detachment on the face. There is nothing “divine” in the figure, only winged sandals indicate that we are facing the god of trade, the patron saint of crooks.
The Archaeological Museum in Athens is justly proud of the unique bronze sculpture of Poseidon, perfectly preserved in the sea, near Cape Artemison. This image, created during the Hellenistic era, is characterized by energy, inner tension and dynamics. A certain emotionality inherent in all sculptures of Hellenism makes the monument interesting for detailed study.
The sculptures of the gods of the Ancient in terms of aesthetics and content actually repeat the work of Greek masters. The only merit of the Romans in sculpture is the realistic images. Since most of the emperors were deified, then in many sculptures of Mars, Jupiters and Neptunes one can recognize some of the august rulers of the great empire.
Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion (near Athens): description, history of the cape, settlement with walls, other temples, map with stops, many photos, position of the Byron sign, opening hours, ticket prices and other useful information.
Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion was the place where sailors prayed to God for the successful completion of the voyage, sacrificing animals and other gifts to him. The Temple of Poseidon is located 69 kilometers southeast of Athens and stands at an altitude of about 60 meters above sea level.
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Cape Sounion
Cape Sounion, the southernmost tip of Attica, was an important strategic point from which the city-state of Athens controlled the passage to the Aegean Sea, to Piraeus - the main port, as well as to the port city of Lavrion and the surrounding silver mines, thanks to which Athens became the main military and cultural center of the 5th century BC
The first to mention Cape Sounion Homer in his "Odyssey" (c. VIII century BC), describing it as "sacred cape for the Athenians." The playwrights Euripides (in Cyclops) and Sophocles, as well as the "father of comedy" Aristophanes, wrote about the temple of Poseidon that stood on it.
3) Ancient roman army(lat. exercitus, previously - classis) - a regular army of Ancient Rome, one of the main elements of Roman society and state.
During the heyday of Ancient Rome, the total number of the army was usually up to 100 thousand people, but could increase to 250-300 thousand people. and more. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, an experienced and well-trained command staff, was distinguished by tough discipline and high military skill of commanders who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving a complete defeat of the enemy.
The main type of troops was the infantry. The fleet ensured the actions of ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, the organization of field camps, the ability to make quick transitions over long distances, the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.
The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was legion... From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. legion consisted of 10 maniple(infantry) and 10 turm(cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - out of 30 maniple(each of which was divided into two centurias) and 10 turm... All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical dismemberment of the legion ensured high maneuverability of the troops on the battlefield. From 107 BC e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided by 10 cohorts(each of which combined three maniples). The legion also included battering and throwing vehicles and a baggage train. In the 1st century A.D. e. the strength of the legion has reached approx. 7 thousand people (including about 800 horsemen).
Ticket number 5
| . The army in ancient Egypt: from military settlements to war chariots and the fleet In the conditions of the existing external threat and the desire of the pharaohs to expand their possessions and sphere of interests, a strong army became the key to the success of any military campaigns. The military caste and elite began to stand out very early, even in the pre-dynastic period, when the process of the formation of nomes was just taking place. By the period of the development of the Old Kingdom, a regular army already existed, mainly in the form of military settlements. They were positioned in those directions from which a threat could be expected. Most of these settlements were localized in the area of the lower course of the Nile, where there was a high probability of an attack by neighboring Asian tribes. | ||||
| Gradually, the network of fortresses and defensive structures expanded. They were built in compliance with all the principles of safety and practicality, primarily taking into account the water supply. Naturally, the strengthening and strengthening of the position of the kingdom contributed to the quantitative and qualitative increase in the army. By the New Kingdom, she reached her prime. During this period, she was a well-organized and equipped detachments, actively using a variety of military equipment and devices to storm and conquer cities and settlements. An involuntary provocateur of the army's reorganization was the conquest of the Egyptians by the Hyksos in the era of the Middle Kingdom. Poor technical development at that time did not allow to provide proper resistance, because this people had war chariots and cavalry, which the soldiers of Egypt did not have in service. And the army under the New Kingdom already included not only ground troops, but also military sailing ships, adapted for boarding and ramming enemy ships. |  Warship in ancient Egypt | |||
| In the same way, military tactics and strategy became more complicated and improved - the order of the location of infantry, archers, chariots on the battlefield was thought out, some battles were carried out with additional support from the fleet. | ||||
| 2. The military campaigns of the Egyptian rulers: the conquest of new territories and the expansion of the state Egypt as a whole could hardly be called a state pursuing a very aggressive expansive policy. Undoubtedly, aggressive and predatory campaigns were an integral part of Egyptian history. At the same time, the pharaohs mainly carried out preventive or retaliatory military campaigns and operations against their main enemies - the Nubians and the peoples who lived beyond Sinai. Little is known about the earliest military campaigns of the ancient Egyptians. More detailed information has been preserved about operations during the Old Kingdom. We are talking about the successful expeditions of Pharaoh Piopi II. He was interested in the natural resources of the Sinai Peninsula - so he went after them, not content with the copper, mined by local tribes, exchanged for Egyptian grain. It was necessary to "keep in check" and the warlike Nubian tribes, not always willing to pay the due tribute. | ||||
| Pharaoh Ahmose is the first ruler of the New Kingdom. He was well aware that state power relies on a well-organized army, so he made efforts to modernize it. During his reign, he undertook at least several large-scale military expeditions. Among them, there are known campaigns against the same Nubians, out of control, and the Hyksos, in order to discourage them from attacking Egypt. To do this, Ahmose had to besiege the Palestinian fortresses for several years, where these tribes settled, since they offered serious resistance. In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. the territory of Ancient Egypt was significantly increased thanks to the campaigns of Amenhotep I and his son Thutmose I - Northern Nubia finally conquered. One of the most famous conquering pharaohs and the greatest strategists can be called Thutmose III (15th century BC). Under him, the borders of Egypt expanded noticeably, and the Battle of Megiddo went down in history, and not only as the largest battle of those years, but also the first detailed field battle with thoughtful tactics and strategy. Subsequently, Thutmose completely conquered Syria and Palestine. |  Military campaign of Pharaoh Thutmose III | |||
| He also regularly returned to the captured areas with new operations to consolidate military success, built fortresses and fortifications there. The rest of the states paid him a generous tribute, just to avoid military clashes with a trained Egyptian army of many thousands. At the beginning of the 14th century. BC e. Pharaoh Ramses II came to power. Under him, a very significant battle for Egyptian history took place at Kadesh as part of the war with the Hittite people. The tiring and difficult battle ended in the end with the signing of a peace treaty almost 2 decades later. By the way, this document is considered the oldest international agreement. Military campaigns allowed the Egyptian pharaohs to replenish the treasury and provide the country with labor - prisoners of war slaves. They also contributed to the development of art, sculpture and architecture through the influx of talented artisans and craftsmen, borrowing new technologies and cultural sensitivity. |
2) Gods of the first generation
Uranus- the personification of the sky, the husband of Gaia
Gaia- the personification of the earth, the consort of Uranus
Eros- the personification of love
Hypnosis- the personification of sleep
Thanatos- the personification of death
Titans, or gods of the second generation
Kronos- the first supreme deity
Prometheus- second generation titanium. Gave people fire and crafts
Olympian gods
Elder gods (Kronids, that is, the children of Kronos)
Zeus- the supreme god after the overthrow of Kronos, the god of thunder
Hera- wife of Zeus, supreme goddess, patroness of marriage
Poseidon- god of the sea
Hades- lord of the kingdom of the dead
Lesser gods
Apollo- god of light, patron of arts
Ares- god of War
Athena- goddess of wisdom, sciences and just war
Aphrodite- goddess of love
Hermes- god of trade and cunning, messenger of the gods
Dionysus- god of winemaking and fun
Other gods and creatures
Titans, Atlanteans, Hecatoncheires, Cyclops, Muses, Giants, Satyrs, Centaurs, etc.
3) The achievements of the material culture and technology of the ancient Romans are especially impressive. It is enough to turn to architecture. It was the Romans who invented a new building material - concrete, which from the II-I centuries BC became widespread and provided the increased strength of Roman buildings. It was the Romans who perfected the arch and became the first to use the vaulted castle structure, which supplanted the Greek orders. A feature of this design was the masonry of the arch of truncated trapezoidal stones; in the center of the arch, like a wedge, a keystone was driven in; the vaulted castle arch was able to withstand several floors: the more gravity acted on the keystone, the greater the elastic forces. This design has been used since the II century BC for the construction of bridges, aqueducts, basilicas and other public buildings; the bridges sometimes exceeded 3 km in length, if we recall the famous, unfortunately, not preserved, Trajan's Bridge (98 - 117) across the Danube River. Aqueducts, or water conduits, rose on arches above the ground, like bridges, and sometimes were two- or even three-story and reached tens and even hundreds of kilometers; the most famous surviving aqueduct is the two-tiered aqueduct in Nimes (France). The aqueducts of Rome were 440 km long. Along with aqueducts, underground sewage canals were built; here the Roman cesspool became especially famous.
In the cities there were theaters in which tragedies and comedies were performed; the most famous of these was the Roman theater of Marcellus (1st century BC). The Romans were the first to build amphitheaters intended for the most massive spectacles - gladiator fights, baiting wild animals, etc. The most famous was the Colosseum (1st century BC); it accommodated 50 thousand spectators, in its arena two thousand gladiators could fight at the same time; cold water was supplied along the seats along special grooves, refreshing and filling the atmosphere of the spectacle with aromas; The Colosseum's underground facilities included gyms, animal cages, medical outpatient clinics and anatomical rooms. The Romans erected circuses in which horse races were arranged on quadrigas - chariots drawn by four horses.
The cities were decorated with magnificent temples. The most prominent of these was the Pantheon, the temple of "all gods"; it was erected by Apollodorus of Damascus and surmounted by a dome of 43 meters in diameter, which remained the largest until the Renaissance. During the imperial period, they began to build baths - public baths, which were complex complexes of structures: massage rooms, steam rooms, swimming pools, sulfur baths, as well as gymnasiums, a courtyard with a park, a library, a symposium, etc. The most impressive were the baths of Caracalla (III century BC) and Diocletian (IV century AD), which could accommodate up to 3 thousand visitors at the same time.
The Romans became famous for the construction of fortified camps (castrum), which gave rise to many cities in the Mediterranean. The best preserved fortress is the Zara fortress on the Adriatic coast, built especially for Diocletian, the last place of seclusion of the emperor who had abandoned power. Fortified camps along the border of the empire were sometimes connected by fortress walls, forming a continuous line of fortifications - limes. Preserved Hadrian's Wall, crossing Britain.
The Roman state was famous for its high quality roads. During the period of the empire, 372 roads with a total length of more than 80 thousand km were built. More than 30 roads connected in Rome. The roadbed was laid out in a trench more than one meter deep and four meters wide, and consisted of several layers - gravel, cobblestones, hewn stone, placed on the edge, and stone tiles, which were melted into mortar. There were cute signs marking the distance from Rome. The most famous was the "Appian Way" 330 km long, it connected Rome with Capua.
The Romans built huge ports, equipped with lifting mechanisms for unloading ships, they made stone piers, granite embankments stretching for tens of kilometers; They were the first to build special warehouses, from which the huge portico of the Emilian II century BC stands out, began to erect covered markets, living rooms with an inner open courtyard and a portico or gallery along the outer perimeter of the building. The Romans were the first to build special production and utility rooms, and introduced the concept of “fabrica” into everyday life.
They developed new types of buildings for the needs of the administration: offices, courts, archives; the central senate archive is known - Tabularium (1st century BC). The Romans created a new type of private dwelling - the atrium; it had a courtyard with a pool and a gallery. During the period of the empire, five-story houses were built for the plebs - insuls, and for the aristocracy - palaces, or villas, surrounded by parks, alleys, artificial ponds with fountains. Villa Tivoli stood out for its special wealth, and of the palaces, the "Golden House" of Nero was distinguished by its unprecedented luxury. In the throne room stood a golden statue of the emperor himself. The ceiling of the hall consisted of rotating plates and could change before the eyes of visitors; in the walls of the throne room there were mechanisms that set the ceiling plates in motion. The Romans were the first to use water and steam heating.
In the field of technology, the Romans used everything that was known to the Hellenes: they knew screws, presses, winches, throwing machines, rail vehicles, knew how to use the forces of water, air, steam. At the same time, the Romans were able to make their own contribution to the development of technology. They perfected the Greek dromon, a rowing ship, and created a galley with several decks and masts. Nero's ship is known; its superstructures were decorated with marble columns and expensive mosaics, the masts were equipped with mechanisms and could be lowered, there was a mechanism for lowering the anchors; rails were laid on the deck, and trolleys rolled on them for the entertainment of the public. The Romans invented water mills. They were able to establish for the first time the production of standardized products, developed a stamping technology used for the manufacture of weapons, etc.
TICKET # 6
1) Laws of Hammurabi(akkad. Inu anum sîrum, "When the highest Anu ..." - the title given by the late Babylonian scribes from the first words of the text), also Hammurabi Code- the legislative code of the Old Babylonian period, created during the reign of King Hammurabi in the 1750s BC. e. One of the oldest legal monuments in the world.
The main text of the vault has been preserved in the form of a cuneiform inscription in Akkadian, carved on a cone-shaped diorite stele, which was discovered by a French archaeological expedition in late 1901 - early 1902 during excavations of the ancient city of Susa in Persia. Modern researchers divide the Laws into 282 paragraphs that regulate matters of legal proceedings, protection of various forms of property and marriage and family relations, as well as private and criminal law. About 35 paragraphs were erased from the stele in antiquity and are currently partially restored from copies on clay tablets.
The laws of Hammurabi are the result of a major reform of the existing legal order, designed to unify and supplement the unwritten norms of behavior that originated in primitive society. As the pinnacle of the development of cuneiform law in ancient Mesopotamia, the Laws influenced the legal culture of the Ancient East for many centuries. The system of law, enshrined in the Babylonian code, became advanced for its time and, in terms of the richness of normative content and legal constructions used, was surpassed only by the later law of Ancient Rome.
Despite the fact that they were created at an early stage of the formation of the Middle Eastern estate society, which led to the comparative cruelty of the criminal penalties established by them, the Laws are distinguished by exceptional thoughtfulness and harmony of legal regulation. Unlike most other ancient monuments of the East, the Hammurabi vault is characterized by an almost complete absence of sacral and religious motivation of individual legal norms, which makes it the first purely legislative act in the history of mankind.
2) Greco-Persian wars(499 - 449 BC, intermittently) - military conflicts between Achaemenid Persia and the Greek city-states that defended their independence. The Greco-Persian Wars are sometimes called the Persian Wars, and this expression usually refers to the campaigns of the Persians in the Balkan Peninsula in 490 BC. e. and in 480-479. BC e.
As a result of the Greco-Persian wars, the territorial expansion of the Achaemenid Empire was stopped, the ancient Greek civilization entered a period of prosperity and its highest cultural achievements.
3) the rise of Spartacus(lat. Bellum spartacium or lat. Tertium Bellum Servile, "The third war with slaves") - the greatest in antiquity and the third (after the first and second Sicilian uprisings) slave uprisings. The last slave uprising in the Roman Republic usually dates back to 74 (or 73) -71. BC e. The Spartacus revolt was the only slave revolt that posed a direct threat to central Italy. It was finally suppressed mainly due to the military efforts of the commander Mark Licinius Crassus. In subsequent years, it continued to have an indirect impact on the politics of Rome.
Between 73 and 71 BC e. a group of fugitive slaves - originally small, of about 78 fugitive gladiators - grew into a community of more than 120,000 men, women and children who traveled across Italy with relative impunity under the leadership of several leaders, including the famed gladiator Spartacus. The combat-ready adult males of this group constituted a remarkably effective armed force that has repeatedly shown that it can withstand Roman military power, both in the form of local patrols and militias, and in the form of trained Roman legions under consular command. Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt to escape from their masters and escape through Gaul, while Appian and Florus portrayed the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to take over Rome itself.
Growing anxiety in the Roman Senate over the continued military successes of Spartacus' army, as well as looting in Roman cities and countryside, eventually led the republic to deploy an army of eight legions under the austere but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus. The war ended in 71 BC. e., when the army of Spartacus, retreating after long and bloody battles in front of the legions of Crassus, Pompey and Lucullus, was completely destroyed, while providing fierce resistance.
The third slave rebellion is significant for the subsequent history of Ancient Rome, mainly in its influence on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two military leaders used their success in suppressing the uprising in their further political careers, using public recognition and the threat of their legions to influence the consular elections of 70 BC. e. in their favor. Their actions greatly contributed to the undermining of Roman political institutions and ultimately the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
SEASON 7
1) God creates the first people - Adam and Eve, who lived in paradise until they tasted the forbidden fruit. As a punishment, God expels them to Earth.
Cain and Abel (sons of Adam and Eve) made sacrifices to the gods. The gifts of Cain, rejected by God, inspired in him a feeling of envy, because of which Cain kills Abel.
As a punishment for sins, God sends a Flood to the Earth. Only one pious person - Noah - God allowed to be saved. At the direction of God, Noah builds an ark ship.
Abraham (the progenitor of the Israelites) concludes a covenant-contract with God that the descendants of Abraham will worship only him, and he will make them the chosen people.
Joseph is Jacob's beloved son, whom the brothers sell to an Egyptian merchant. In Egypt, Joseph becomes a slave, and then a nobleman (thanks to the fact that he correctly interprets the dream of Pharaoh and saves the Egyptians from hunger). As a result of the famine, the entire family of Jacob migrates to Egypt.
Exodus of Jews from Egypt. Life in Egypt turned into captivity and oppression. The first biblical prophet Moses brought the Jews out of the Egyptian captivity.
On Mount Sinai, Moses receives from God stone tablets carved into the ten commandments
2) and Game History [edit | edit wiki text]
According to the most ancient legend, the Olympic Games originated in the time of Kronos, in honor of the Ideological Hercules. According to the myth, Rhea handed over the newborn Zeus to the Ideal Dactyls (Kuret). Five of them came from Ida of Crete to Olympia, where a temple was already erected in honor of Kronos. Hercules, the eldest of the brothers, defeated everyone in the race and was awarded a wild olive wreath for the victory. At the same time, Hercules established competitions that were to take place in 5 years, according to the number of ideological brothers who arrived in Olympia.
There were other legends about the origin of the national holiday, which were timed to coincide with one or another mythical era. There is no doubt, in any case, that Olympia was an ancient sanctuary, long known in the Peloponnese. Homer's Iliad mentions quadrigi races (chariots with four horses) organized by the inhabitants of Elis (the region in the Peloponnese where Olympia was located), and where quadrigi were sent from other places in the Peloponnese (Iliad, 11.680).
The first historical fact associated with the Olympic Games is their renewal by the king of Elis Iphit and the legislator of Sparta Lycurgus, whose names were inscribed on a disc kept in the temple of Hera in Olympia during the time of Pausanias (II century AD). Since that time (according to some sources, the year of the resumption of the games is 728 BC, according to others - 828 BC) the interval between two successive celebrations of the games was four years or the Olympiad; but as a chronological era in the history of Greece, a countdown from 776 BC was adopted. e. (see the article Olympiad (chronology)).
Resuming the Olympic Games, Iphit established during their celebration a sacred truce (Greek ἐκεχειρία), which was announced by special heralds (Greek σπονδοφόροι) first in Elis, then in other parts of Greece; the month of the truce was called ἱερομηνία. At this time, it was impossible to wage war not only in Elis, but also in other parts of Hellas. Using the same motive of the sanctity of the place, the Eleans achieved agreement from the Peloponnesian states to consider Elis a country against which it was impossible to wage war. Subsequently, however, the Eleans themselves repeatedly attacked neighboring regions.
Scientists from different countries are still arguing over what sports the athletes competed in. According to the most common version, from the very beginning, the only sport was running, but then chariot racing and wrestling joined it.
Only full-fledged Hellenes could participate in the festive competitions. The Greeks subjected to athymia, as well as the barbarians, could only be spectators. Later, an exception was made in favor of the Romans, who, as owners of the land, could change religious customs at their own discretion. Women, except for the priestess of Demeter, did not even enjoy the right to watch the games. At the same time, women had the opportunity to take part in the Olympics in absentia, simply by sending their chariot (the owner of the horses was considered the winner, and Kiniska became the first champion). In addition, especially for purposeful women, the Greeks decided to make an exception and organized special games, the winner of which received an olive wreath and food supplies, in particular meat.
The number of spectators and performers of the Olympic Games was very large; very many used this time to make trade and other transactions, and poets and artists - to acquaint the public with their works. From different states of Greece, special deputies were sent to the holiday, who competed with each other in an abundance of offerings to maintain the honor of their city.
The holiday took place on the first full moon after the summer solstice, that is, it fell on the Attic month of Hecatombeon, and lasted five days, of which one part was devoted to competitions, the other part to religious rites with sacrifices, processions and public feasts in honor of the winners. According to Pausanias, before 472 BC. e. all competitions took place on the same day, and later were distributed to all days of the holiday.
For the types of competition in the Olympic Games, see the article Competitions of the Ancient Olympic Games.
The judges who watched the course of the competition and awarded the winners were called Ellanodons; they were appointed by lot from among the local Elyos and were in charge of the organization of the whole festival. Ellanodiks were first 2, then 9, even later 10; from the 103rd Olympiad (368 BC) there were 12, according to the number of Eleatic phyla. In the 104th Olympiad, their number was reduced to 8, and finally, from the 108th Olympiad to Pausanias, there were 10 of them. They wore purple clothes and had special seats on the stage. Under their command was a police detachment of Alitais, with aditarhs at the head.
Before speaking to the people, everyone who wanted to take part in the competition had to prove to the Heladons that they had devoted 10 months preceding the competition to preliminary preparation, taking an oath in front of the statue of Zeus. Fathers, brothers and gymnastics teachers who wished to compete were also required to swear that they would not be found guilty of any crime. For 30 days, everyone who wanted to compete had to first show their art in front of the Helanodons at the Olympic Gymnasium.
The order of the competition was announced to the public by means of a white sign (Greek λεύκωμα). Before the competition, everyone who wanted to participate in it drew lots to determine the order in which they would go to fight, after which the herald publicly announced the name and country of the competitor. The reward for the victory was a wild olive wreath (Greek κότινος), the winner was placed on a bronze tripod (τρίπους ἐπίχαλκος) and palm branches were given to him. The winner, in addition to fame for himself personally, also glorified his state, which provided him with various benefits and privileges for this. Athens gave the winner a cash prize (however, the amount was moderate). From 540 BC e. the Eleans were allowed to erect a statue of the winner in Altis (see Olympia). Upon returning home, he was staged a triumph, composed songs in his honor and awarded various valuable prizes.
The Olympic Games were banned in the 1st year of the 293rd Olympiad (394) by the Christian emperor Theodosius as pagan. Revived in 1896 (see Olympic Games).
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| date | Events of Ancient Rome |
| 800 (BC) | The first settlement on the site of Rome. |
| 753 (BC) | The traditional date of the founding of Rome by Romulus. |
| 509 (BC) | The expulsion of King Tarquinius the Proud and the establishment of a republican system in Rome (at the head of the city there are two elected consuls). |
| 496 (BC) | Renewal of the Latin Union led by Rome (the Latins are related tribes that inhabited Latium, the center of Italy). |
| 494 (BC) | The departure of the plebeians (an unequal part of Roman society) outside the city limits, which led to the establishment of the position of the tribune of the people. The beginning of the struggle of plebeians with patricians for their rights. |
| 451 (BC) | The first written code of Roman legislation is the "Laws of the 12 tables". |
| 445 (BC) | Abolition of the custom forbidding marriages between patricians and plebeians. |
| 396 (BC) | The ten-year war between Rome and the Etruscan city of Veii ends with its capture. Rome began the conquest of Etruria. |
| 390 (BC) | The Gauls invade Italy and the siege of Rome, saved by the geese. The collapse of the Latin Union. |
| 358 (BC) | Temporary restoration of the Latin Union. |
| 343 (BC) | The beginning of the 1st Samnite War (Rome against the alliance of the tribes of the south-west of Italy (Samnites), related to the Latins in language), as a result of which the penetration of the Romans into Campania (the region south of Latium) began. |
| 338 (BC) | The Romans defeat the rebellious Latins and dissolve the Latin Union. |
| 327 (BC) | The Romans capture Naples, leading to the 2nd Samnite War. |
| 321 (BC) | The defeat of the Romans by the Samnites in the Kandinsky Gorge, after which the reform of the Roman army was carried out. |
| 312 (BC) | The construction by the Romans of the first paved road connecting Rome with the south of Italy (Appian Way), the first city water supply. |
| 304 (BC) | The peace treaty between Rome and the Samnites, according to which the Romans received the Campania. |
| 298 (BC) | The beginning of the 3rd Samnite War, which ended in 290 with the conquest of the Samnites and the dissolution of their union. |
| 280 (BC) | The beginning of the war of Rome against the troops of King Pyrrhus, who arrived from Greece to help the Greek colony of Tarentum. Major events: the landing of Pyrrhus in Italy and his VICTORY over the Romans at Heracleus (280); the defeat of the Romans at Ausculus ("Pyrrhic victory", 279); the defeat of Pyrrhus at Be-nevent and his departure from Italy (275); capture of Taren-ta by the Romans (272). |
| 265 (BC) | The capture of the Etruscan city of Volsini by the Romans - the end of the subjugation of Italy. |
| 264 (BC) | The beginning of the 1st Punic War (Rome against Carthage). Main events: the Romans ousted the Carthaginians from the Messene cliff, which was the key to Sicily from the Italian side (264); the Romans capture Agrigent - the most important fortress on the southern coast of Sicily (262); the Romans build a fleet for the first time and defeat the Carthaginians at sea at the Battle of Milah (260); the sea VICTORY of the Romans at Cape Eknom (256); the landing of a Roman landing near Carthage and its death (255-254); the Romans capture Panorm, an important fortress in the west of Sicily (251); the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca arrives in Sicily, who skillfully restrains the onslaught of the Romans on the last Carthaginian fortresses (247); the defeat of the Carthaginian fleet at the Egat Islands (241); peace on the terms of the transfer to the Romans of all Sicily (241). |
| 241 (BC) | Creation of the first Roman province (exploited territory) - Sicily. |
| 238 (BC) | Accession to Rome of Corsica and Sardinia. |
| 237 (BC) | The beginning of the conquest of Spain by the Carthaginians. |
| 220 (BC) | The beginning of the conquest of Illyria (the territory of present-day Croatia and Bosnia) by the Romans. |
| 225 (BC) | The beginning of the war with the Gauls, which ended in 222 with the annexation of Cisalpine Gaul (modern Northern Italy) to Rome. |
| 220 (BC) | Construction of the Flaminia road leading north from Rome. |
| 219 (BC) | The Carthaginian general Hannibal captures the Spanish city of Sagunt, allied with Rome. The 2nd Punic War begins. Main events: Hannibal invades Italy through the Alps, defeats the Romans at the Ticine and Trebbia rivers and revolts in Cisalpine Gaul (218); Hannibal defeats the Romans at the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217); Hannibal completely surrounds the Roman army at Cannes and destroys it, after which many cities in Central Italy change Rome (216); Macedonia and Syracuse enter the war on the side of Carthage (215); the Romans take Syracuse and Capua (center of revolt in Central Italy, 211); the Romans capture New Carthage - the center of the Carthaginian possessions in Spain (209); VICTORY of the Romans over the Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdruba-la at Metaurus (207); the Romans make peace with Macedonia on the terms of the partition of Illyria (205); the Romans inflict a decisive defeat on Hannibal at the Battle of Zama (202); the conclusion of peace on the terms of the transfer of Spain to Rome and the destruction of the Carthaginian fleet (201). |
| 200 (BC) | The beginning of the war between Rome and Macedonia, which ended in 197 with the defeat of the Macedonians at Ki-noskefals. |
| 192 (BC) | The beginning of the war between Rome and the Seleucid king Antiochus III. Main events: the defeat of Anti-Oha in the Battle of Magnesia (190); Apamean world, according to which the Seleucids have only Syria (188). |
| 171 (BC) | The beginning of the war between Rome and Macedonia, which ended in 168 with the final defeat of the Macedonians at Pydna. |
| 167 (BC) | The influx of wealth from captured Macedonia makes it possible to abolish all taxes levied on Roman citizens. |
| 149 (BC) | The beginning of the siege of Carthage, which ended with its destruction in 146 (3rd Punic War). |
| 138 (BC) | The beginning of a slave revolt in Sicily, suppressed by the Romans by 132 BC |
| 126 (BC) | The kingdom of Pergamon was transformed into the province of Asia - the creation of the first Roman province in Asia. |
| 120 (BC) | Formation of the province of Narbonne Gaul (beginning of the conquest of the territory of modern France). |
| 111 (BC) | The beginning of the Yugurtin War (Rome against the North African kingdom of Numidia). Main events: the defeat of the Romans (109); military reform Maria (107); the defeat and capture of the king of Yugurta (105). |
| 105 (BC) | The defeat of the Romans from the Germanic tribes of Cimbri and Teutons at Arausion. |
| 102 (BC) | Destruction of the Teutons by the Romans under the Aquas of the Sextius. |
| 101 (BC) | Destruction of the Cimbri by the Romans at Wercellus. |
| 90 (BC) | The beginning of the Allied War (the uprising of the Italian allies of Rome, who sought equality), which ended in 88 by the granting of rights to those who laid down their arms. |
| 89 (BC) | The beginning of the wars with the king of Pontus (kingdom in the southeast of Asia Minor) Mithridates VI (ended in 63 by the suicide of Mithridates). |
| 88 (BC) | The beginning of the civil war in Rome (supporters of Maria against Sulla). |
| 82 (BC) | Sulla's VICTORY and the establishment of his dictatorship (until 79). |
| 74 (BC) | The beginning of the uprising of slaves led by Spartacus, suppressed by the Romans by 71. |
| 64 (BC) | Formation of the provinces of Syria and Bithynia and Pontus, liquidation of the Seleucid state. |
| 62 (BC) | Catalina's attempted rebellion. |
| 60 (BC) | 1st triumvirate (union of Pompey, Crassus and Caesar). |
| 58 (BC) | The beginning of the Gallic War (the conquest of the territory of modern France by Caesar, completed by 51). |
| 53 (BC) | The defeat of Crassus's army by the Parthians and his death. |
| 49 (BC) | Caesar with an army crosses the Rubicon River (the beginning of the civil war against Pomp |
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